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AGRICULTURE  ^^^ 


JNT  O  H.  T  H- C:? -A.  R  OH.  I  INT  j^. 


I»-A.H.T     11: 


CONTAINING   A  STATEMENT  OF  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF   THE 

SCIENCE   UPON  WHICH   THE   PRACTICES   OF 

AGRICULTURE,   AS   AN  ART,   ARE 

FOUNDED. 


BY 

E  B  E  N  E  Z  E  R     EMMONS 

STATE  GEOLOGIST. 


^^  RALEIGH :         ^ 

W.^'.     HOLDEN,     PRINTER    TO     T!^     STATE. 
^  I860,     v^-  ^ 


To  His  EMellency,  John  W.  Ellis, 

Governor  of  North-  Carolina : 

Sir  I  Althongli  your  station  in  life  withheld  your  hands  from  the 
active  and  laborious  duties  of  husbandry,  yet,  in  the  discharge  of 
your  former  official  duties,  you  were  furnished  with  constant  oppor* 
tunities  to  acquire  exact  information  of  the  state  and  condition  of 
Agriculture  throughout  the  State.  It  is  no  doubt  for  this  reason 
that  you  have  so  frequently  expressed  the  strong  interest  for  the 
improvements  in  this  department  of  labor,  and  the  more  general 
dift'usion  of  information  upon  those  subjects  which  are  intimately 
related  to  it. 

By  your  permission  and  advice  I  have  been  led  to  undertake 
the  preparation  of  several  works  upon  the  Agriculture  of  the  State. 
The  first  is  designed  to  be  preparatory  to  those  which  will  follow, 
and  although  the  subject  matters  are  by  no  means  easily  treated, 
yet  I  am  encouraged  to  hope  I  shall  so  far  succeed  as  to  present 
them  in  a  form  and  in  a  language  which  can  be  understood  by  the 
common  reader. 

I  am,  sir. 

Tour  obedient  servant, 

EBENEZEE  EMMONS, 

State  Geologist 

Ralmgh,  Mavoh  1, 1-660, 


PREFACE. 


The  principles  of  Agriculture  set  forth  in  the  following  pages  are 
designed  for  the  use  of  Planters  and  Farmers  of  this  State.  The 
subjects  involving  the  principles  herein  detailed,  are  not  so  fully 
treated  of  as  in  other  works  of  a  higher  aim,  and  which  profess  to 
be  scientific ;  but  we  hope  that  they  belong  to  a  class  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  leading  principles  of  Agriculture ;  and  there- 
fore, may  secure  the  attention  of  those  for  whom  they  are  designed. 

In  consequence  of  the  fixed  prejudices  to  change  modes  of" 
culture,  and  the  strong  tendency  to  unbelief  of  promised  advaur 
tages  when  mcdifications  of  a  system  of  husbandry  are  proposed^^ 
it  has  happened  that  prolessional  men  have  taken  the  lead  and  ad- 
vanced forward,  when  the  regular  bred  farmer  has  stood  stilh  The- 
lawyer,  the  physician,  and  merchant,  men  of  capital,,  who'  have 
been  disposed  to  retire  from  their  professions  have  been  generally 
more  ready  to  follow  new  modes  of  culture,  and  to. engage  in  some- 
what more  expensive  experiments  than  the  farmer.  It  istrue, .their 
example  has  not  been  followed  immediately,,  and'  indeed,  they 
have  not  always  succeeded  ;  but  their  resiajts  hav^e  often  been  so 
striking,  as  to  arrest  attention,  and  it  baa- worked  in  some  way  or 
other  to  the  advantage  of  agriculture ;;  sometimes  by  exciting  the 
pride  or  vanity  of  the  regular  bred  farmer,  who  feels  that  he  ought,; 
not  to  be  outdone  or  outshone  ia  cropa  or  cattle;  and  has  thei^^r- 
fore,  been  led  to  attempt  on  his-  part  to,  outdo  a  competitor,. w\hoi 
has  placed  himself  irregularly  in  the  ranks  of  laboring  men*  B^v 
way  of  illustration,  we  may  mention,  Livingston,  who  introdneed 
plaster,  by  which  the  agriculture  ofuNew  York  was  revolutionized. 
LiEBiG,  a  chemist,  first  gr:ej:|ared  and  recommended  the  use  of  the 
superj)hosjphat6  of  Z^mJSj, which  had,  a  decided  inJBluenCiei  upon  the 
progress  of  agriculture..  The  introduction,  of  fertilizers  of  this- 
class  could  not  fail  to  su,ggest  many  others,  and  hence,  a  multitude 
of  mineral  substaaaes  have  been  tried  with  varied tsuecess. 

The  faithful  rea,der,  of  the  following  pages  m,ay  probably  observe  . 
that  certain  fa§j9..,a;P.d  prmcjplea  aj:e  repeated  i  ift,  different  parts  of  ■ 


Vl  PREFACE. 

the  work ;  if  so,  it  will  be  found  that  they  stand  in  different  rela- 
tions, and  hence,  are  possessed  of  a  greater  value;  we  are  not 
always  losers  by  repetitions,  when  we  can  present  them  under  a 
new  phase.  We  have  prepared  this  work,  because  we  considered 
it  necessary  to  carry  out  the  objects  of  the  survey.  It  is  intended 
to  prepare  the  way  for  other  works  which  require  a  knowledge  of 
the  facts  and  principles  contained  in  this.  Agriculture  is  com- 
manding more  attention  than  formerly.  Products,  which  ten  years 
ago  were  unprofitable,  have  become  profitable,  because  of  the 
greater  facilities  and  a  diminished  expense  in  reaching  the  markets 
of  the  world.  Every  mile  of  railroad  helps  the  farmer,  as  his  pro- 
ducts are  heavy,  and  are  often  both  heavy  and  bulky.  He  re- 
quires, therefore,  more  than  any  other  citizen,  public  facilities. 
As  the  world  now  moves,  time  is  doubly  imporiant,  and  to  attempt 
to  reach  a  distant  market  with  flour,  corn  or  cotton,  with  the  old 
six  horse  or  mule  team,  would  be  utterly  ruinous.  It  was  impossi- 
ble to  revive  agriculture  under  the  old  dynasty,  inaction;  but  the 
advantages  of  public  improvements  are  now  so  strongly  felt  that 
very  few  remain  to  oppose  them:  the  great  care  which  now  de- 
volves upon  this  generation  of  active  and  influential  men,  is  to 
direct  them  judiciously. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

General  remarks.  Obstacles  which  retard  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
farmers.  Errors  often  due  to  imperfect  observations.  Case  in  point  relating 
to  acid  soils.     How  experiments  should  be  conducted.     9 — 14. 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  difficulty  of  classifying  soils  systematically.  Varieties  of  soils.  Soil  elements. 
Derivation.  Composition  of  rocks  which  furnish  soils.  Weight  of  soils. 
Average  quantity  of  silex  in  soils.  Carbonate  of  lime  in  soils.  Losses  which 
soils  sustain  in  cultivation  well  established.  Temperature  an  essential  element 
in  productive .  soils.  Soils  of  the  Southern  States  remain  iii  situ.  Organic 
elements  of  soil.     Inorganic  elements,  etc.     14 — 27. 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  organic  part  of  a  soil  and  variety  of  names  under  which  it  is  known.  Changes 
which  it  undergoes,  and  the  formation  of  new  bodies  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen.  Fertihzers  in  North-Carohna.  Green  crops.  Mutual  action  of 
elements  of  soils  upon  each  other.  Composition  of  one  or  two  of  the  chemical 
products  of  soils,  showing  the  sources  of  carbon  in  the  plant.     27—32. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  mechanical  condition  of  soils  differ.  Circulation  of  water  in  the  soil  with 
its  saline  matter.  Capability  of  bearing  drouth.  How  to  escape  from  the 
effects  of  drouth.  Temperature  of  soils.  Influenced  by  color.  "Weight  of 
soils,  etc.     32—36. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Mechanical  treatment  of  soils.  Deep  plowing.  Advantages  of  draining.  Open 
drains.  Plowing.  Objects  attained  by  plowing.  Harrowing.  Roller.  Im- 
provement of  soils  by  mixture.     Hoeing.     Effects  of  hoeing.     36 — 42. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Soil  elements  preserve  the  proportions  very  nearly  as  they  exist  in  the  parent 
rock.  Weight  of  different  kinds  of  soils.  Most  important  elements  of  soil 
represented  by  fractions.  Effects  of  small  doses  of  fertilizers  explained.  Nature 
deals  out  her  nutriment  in  atom  doses,  and  so  does  the  successful  florist. 
42—45. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Fertilizers  defined.  Their  necessity.  Mechanical  means  of  improvements  of 
soil.  Effects  of  lime.  Growth  is  the  result  of  change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
fertilizers  employed.  Organs  have  each  their  own  special  influence  upon  the 
fertilizing  matter  they  receive.  Provisions  for  sustaining  vegetable  life.  A 
system  of  adaptive  husbandry.  Instances  cited.  Adaptation  of  a  crop  to  the 
soil.  What  fertilizers  will  aid  in  ripening  the  crop  at  the  right  time.  The 
source  of  fertilizers.  Green  crops.  Peat.  Advantages  of  a  green  crop.  Marine 
plants.  Straw.  Losses  of  farmyard  manure.  Peat,  how  prepared  for  use. 
Composts.     Fertilizers  of  animal  origin.     Solids  and  fluids.     45 — 61. 


VUl  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Solid  excrements.  Guano.  Composition  and  comparative  value.  Discrepances 
stated.     61—67. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Mineral  fertilizers.  Sulphates.  Native  phosphates.  Carbonates.  Nitrates.  Sil- 
icates. Ashes.  Analysis  of  the  ash  of  the  white  oak.  Composition  of  peat 
ashes.     Management  of  volatile  and  other  fertilizers.     67 — 84. 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  quantity  or  ratio  of  the  inorganic  elements  in  a  plant  may  be  increased  by 
cultivation.  Source  of  nitrogen.  Specific  action  of  certain  manures,  particu- 
larly salts.  Farmyard  manure  never  amiss.  Use  of  phosphate  of  magnesia. 
Special  manures  sometimes  fail,  as  gypsum.     84 — 87. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

On  the  periodical  increase  of  the  corn  plant.  The  white  flmt,  together  with  the 
increase  of  leaves  and  other  organs.  The  proportions  of  the  inorganic  elements 
in  the  several  parts  of  their  composition.  The  quantity  of  inorganic  matter  in 
an  acre  of  corn,  and  in  each  of  the  parts  composing  the  plant.  Remarks  upon 
the  statistics  of  composition.     87 — 95. 

CHAPTER  XTI. 

Value  of  foliage  for  animal  consumption  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  two  differ- 
ent classes  of  bodies :  heat  producing  and  flesh  producing  bodies.  These  two 
classes  are  the  proximate  organic  bodies,  and  are  ready  formed  in  the  vegetable 
organs.  Proximate  composition  illustrated  by  two  varieties  of  maize.  Their 
comparative  value.  Analysis  of  several  other  varieties  of  maize  for  the  pur- 
pose of  illustrating  difference  of  composition  as  well  as  their  different  values. 
Composition  of  timothy,  etc.     95 — 100. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Composition  of  tuberous  plants  with  respect  to  their  nutritive  elements.     Irish 
potatoe.     Sweet  potatoe.     Their  nutritive  values  compared.     100 — 102. 
CHAPTER  XIV. 

Composition  of  the  ash  of  fruit  trees ;  as  the  peach,  apple,  pear,  Catawba  grape. 
Amount  of  carbon  or  pure  charcoal  which  some  of  the  hard  woods  give  by 
ignition  in  closely  covered  crucibles.     102 — 105. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Nitrogenous  fertilizers  most  suitable  for  the  cereals.  Correlation  of  means  and 
ends  which  meet  in  fertilizers.  The  final  end  of  nitrogenous  bodies.  The 
power  to  store  up  or  consume  fertilizers  modified  by  age,  exercise  and  tempera- 
ture. Error  in  cattle  husbandry.  Crops  containing  the  largest  amount  of  nu- 
triment. Weights  of  crops,  etc.  Indian  corn  and  turnips.  Sweet  potatoes. 
The  produce  of  an  acre  of  cabbage,  etc.     105 — 112. 


SURVEY   OF   KORTH-CAROLINA, 

PART    II, 

Makch,  1860.  E.  EiiMONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Greneral  remarks.  Obstacles  which  retard  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
Farmers.  Errors  often  due  to  imperfect  observations.  Case  in  point  relat- 
ing to  acid  soils.     How  experiments  to  be  useful  should  be  conducted. 

§  1.  Ageictjltuke  is  regarded  as  an  art  and  a  science.  As 
an  art,  its  practice  comprehends  the  preparation  of  the  earth  for 
the  reception  of  seed,  and  the  mechanical  state  best  fitted  for  the 
perfection  of  a  crop. 

As  a  science,  it  comprehends  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  re- 
lates to  th(j  structure  and  composition  of  vegetables,  their  adaptions 
to  climate,  soil,  and  the  relation  which  any  members  of  the  king- 
dom hold  to  the  forces  of  nature.  The  successful  practice  of  the 
art,  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  agricultural  science,  though  in 
the  order  of  time,  art  preceded  science.  This  fact  may  seem  to 
contradict  the  foregoing  assertion,  nevertheless  its  truth  may  bo 
made  to  appear  from  sundry  considerations.  In  the  first  place,  the 
practice  of  the  art  is  founded  upon  the  simplest  observations  when 
the  soil  was  fresh  from  the  hand  of  nature  and  rich  in  all  the  ele- 
ments  of  growth,  when  nothing  perhaps  was  required  but  to  gather 
the  fruit  and  watch  the  progress  of  the  seasons. 

When  improvement  was  attempted  more  attention  was  required. 
The  grafting  of  one  kind  of  fruit  upon  another  must  have  demand-^ 
ed  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  bark,  stem  and  the 
circulation  of  sap.    The  success  would  depend  upon  a  purely  scien-- 


10  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVICT. 

tific  conception,  which  would  suggest  the  proper  artistic  mode  of 
procedure.  Accident  must  frequentl}'^  have  promoted  discoveries, 
but  accident  happens  in  vain  to  the  man  who  neglects  to  think, 
and  perceive  the  real  nature  of  results  and  how  they  came  to  pass. 
Accident  in  the  presence  of  GtAlvani  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
beautiful  science  of  galvanism  ;  the  same  accident  in  the  presence 
often  or  a  hundred  other  men  may  not  have  awakened  a  single 
idea  beyond  the  naked  fact. 

Accident,  therefore,  though  it  may  have  done  much  for  science 
as  well  as  art,  yet  it  is  only  when  it  has  occurred  under  the  eyes  of 
thinking  men  ;  in  them  alone  will  be  awakened  the  germ  of  a  prac- 
tical idea. 

It  is  not  to  accident  however  that  progress  in  science  or  the  arts 
is  expected.  An  unexpected  result  may  and  often  occurs  which 
is  turned  to  account;  still,  it  is  by  a  train  of  systematized  knowledge 
that  agriculture  must  depend  for  its  future  progress.  The  more 
exact  this  knowledge  becornea  the  more  we  may  hope  from  its  gen- 
eral diffusion. 

§  2.  Governed  by  the  foregoing  views  we  have  proposed  to  pre- 
face a  series  of  agricultural  papers  by  stating  as  fully  as  the  nature 
of  the  subject  demands  the  elements  of  scientific  and  practical  agri- 
culture. In  former  reports,  we  have  not  entirely  neglected  or 
overlooked  this  part  of  the  subject,  but  to  add  to  the  value  of  our 
agricultural  investigations,  it  seems  that  something  more  than  a 
few  isolated  principles  should  accompany  the  reports.  The  public 
mind  is  now  awakened  to  the  importance  of  book  knowledge  as  it 
has  been  called.  Old  prejudices  and  old  practices  are  giving  away, 
these  should  be  replaced  by  something  more  sound  or  rational,  or 
more  in  accordance  with  recently  established  principles.  In  agri- 
culture there  still  remains  much  that  is  obscure  or  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  explained.  When  a  true  reason  can  be  given  for 
modes  of  successful  or  unsuccessful  culture,  agriculture  will  then 
have  attained  its  highest  stage  of  perfection.  But  agriculture  re- 
quires extensive  knowledge,  and  it  will  happen  when  this  stage  has 
been  reached,  that  agriculturalists  will  rank  with  the  most  learned 
of  the  professions.  That  it  is  progressing  to  such  a  stage  we  enter- 
tain no  doubts ;  for  most  of  the  natural  history  sciences  are  con- 
stantly contributing  their  discoveries  to  this  ultimate  result.  But 
for  results  so  desirable,  time  is  an  essential  element,  and  no  one 


NORTH-CAROLINA   IDEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  11 

should  expect  an  immediate  fulfilment  when  so  much  remains  to  be 
discovered  and  when  no  doubt,  a  great  deal  has  yet  to  be  unlearnt 
or  must  still  bear  a  doubtful  import. 

§  3.  One  of  the  great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  general  dif- 
fusion of  agricultural  knowledge,  especially  to  the  farmer  who 
makes  no  claim  to  a  scientific  education,  is  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  hard  names  or  words.  A  book  is  often  thrown  down  in  despair 
when  so  much  meets  the  eye  which  is  unknown.  How  to  get 
around  this  difiiculty  is  not  yet  clear ;  it  is  a  difficulty  which  is 
complained  of  even  b}''  persons  who  have  no  just  right  for  com- 
plaint. Even  a  word  so  common  as  ammonia^  perplexes  many, 
and  although  it  is  frequently  translated  hartshorn^  yet  how  this 
pungent  vaporous  body  can  play  so  important  a  part  in  husbandry 
cannot  be  comprehended.  There  is  certainly  a  grain  or  two  of  com- 
mon sense  in  this ;  for  as  ammonia  is  usually  spoken  of,  it  would 
seem  unfitting  that  it  should  enter  the  structure  of  vegetables  as 
hartshorn,  and  that  it  is  hartshorn  itself  which  is  so  important  to 
vegetation,  whereas,  it  is  no  such  thing;  it  is  only  a  body  whicli 
contains  a  needful  element  which  it  furnishes  by  decomposition. 
Its  properties  are  due  to  powers  conferred  upon  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Knowing  this  body  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the  sense 
of  smell,  does  not  impart  to  us  a  property  fitting  the  sphere  it  is 
said  to  fill.  It  is  so  with  many  other  bodies  whose  names  often 
occur,  as  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids.  Many  points  relating  to  these 
powerful  bodies  should  be  more  fully  explained,  and  no  doubt 
much  of  lihe  prejudice  of  common  minds  to  book  knowledge  arises 
from  a  misapprehension  of  subjects.  How,  for  example,  can  a 
person  who  has  been  told  that  ammonia  and  nitric  acid  or  aqua 
fortis  are  fertilizers,  but  would  at  once  question  the  validity  of  the 
information.  Something  more  is  necessary  then,  than  to  be  told 
that  certain  bodies  are  fertilizers ;  they  should  also  know  the  reason 
why  they  are  so,  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  become  so. 
To  understand  these  points,  something  must  be  known  of  the 
powers  conferred  upon  the  vegetable  kingdom,  as  well  as  upon  the 
state  and  condition  under  which  simple  or  compound  bodies  be- 
come really  fertilizers  at  all.  A  systematic  treatise  on  husbandry 
requires  that  certain  elementary  facts  relating  to  the  origin  or 
source  of  soils  and  nutriment  of  vegetables  should  be  sJt  least 
generally  stated. 


12  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

§  4.  The  importance  of  established  principles  as  they  are 
considered  in  the  present  state  of  agricultural  knowledge,  induces 
us  then  to  state  somewhat  in  detail  their  practical  bearing. 

Facts  differ  from  principles.     The  latter  are  deductions  from  the 
former.     It  is  often  the  case  that  what  are  regarded  as  facts  are 
imperfect  observations.     Principles  which  may  be  deduced  from 
supposed  facts  may  be,  and  often  are,  wrong.     "When  practice  is 
based  upon  observation,  it  is  quite  necessary  we  should  not  be 
mistaken  in  our  facts.     We  may  cite  one  or  two  examples  of  a 
mistaken  theory  based  upon  imperfect  observation  and  an  igno- 
rance of  the  functions  which  the  vegetable  kingdom  performs. 
Thus  the  idea  of  an  injurious  acid  in  the  soil  is  the  basis  of  the  applica- 
tion of  marl  and  lime  to  correct  that  condition,  and  the  inference  is, 
that  the  beneficial  effects  of  marling  is  due  solely  to  the  correction  of 
acidity.     The  acidity  itself  is  founded  upon  the  growth  of  sheep 
sorrel,  pine  and  other  plants,  which  impart  the  taste  of  sourness  to 
the  palate.     Sheep  sorrel,  however,  grows  upon  poor  soil — not 
upon  an  acid  soil,  for  it  otten  grows  around  lime  kilns,  where  it  is 
impossible  that  an  acid  should  exist  at  all.     We  have  seen  it  grow- 
ing with  great  vigor  through  a  stratum  of  air-slacked  lime  two 
inches  thick,  where  it  had  been  thrown  from  a  lime  kiln.     We 
have  seen  sheep  sorrel  also  covering  a  dry  hill-side  which  had  be- 
come poor  by  cultivation ;  whereas,  it  is  rare  to  see  this  plant 
growing  in  moist  peaty  grounds,  where  acids  from  vegetable  de- 
composition are  usually  expected.     The  fact  is,  in  all  plants  which 
impart  to  the  palate  an  acid  taste,  we  may  be  assured  it  is  not  due 
to  an  acid  soil,  but  to  the  action  of  their  own  peculiar  organization, 
and  this  acid  will  be  found  to  exist  under  any  condition  in  which 
the  plant  can  bo  grown.     The  soil  has  really  no  agency  in  its  pro- 
duction ;  for  sow  sorrel  seed  in  white  pure  sand  and  water,  with 
that  which  is  free  from  acidity,  and  the  sorrel  will  be  acid ;  it  is 
characteristic  of  the  plant,  and  indej)endent  of  the  soil  in  which  it 
grows.     Yet  marl  is  useful,  though  our  notions  of  its  action  are 
erroneous ;  still  the  question  is  highly  practical ;  it  would  govern 
our  practice  in  the  quantity  to  be  used ;  for  if  it  is  merely  wanted  to 
correct  acidity,  a  small  quantity  will  suflSce  for  that.     Whereas,  if 
it  is  maintained  that  it  furnished  directly  or  indirectly  food  to  the 
crop,  a  much  greater  quantity  will  be  required. 


NOETH-CAROLINA  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  13 

§  5.  Another  instance  of  an  erroneous  view  of  the  operation  of  lime 
was  related  a  few  years  ago  at  an  agricultural  meeting  by  the 
President  of  a  State  Agricultural  Society.  He  said,  he  had  used 
lime  on  two  different  kinds  of  soil.  1st.  On  a  sandy  soil,  and  at  a 
certain  amount  per  acre.  He  could  not  discover  the  slightest  ben- 
eficial effects.  He  therefore  concluded  lime  was  good  for  nothing 
for  sandy  soils.  He  then  tried  it  upon  a  clay  soil.  This  experi- 
ment too  was  a  failure,  as  he  could  not  perceive  that  his  crop  was 
increased  in  amount.  His  general  conclusion,  therefore,  was  that 
the  benefits  of  lime  had  been  greatly  overrated. 

!N^ow  both  conclusions  were  erroneous,  because  all  the  facts 
oi  the  case  had  not  been  investigated.  In  the  first  instance 
the  conclusion  that  the  crop  upon  the  sand  was  not  improved  by 
lime  was  true,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  lime  upon  sandy  soils  is 
always  useless,  that  contradicts  the  equally  good  experience  of  oth- 
ers. The  fact  was,  the  sandy  soil  was  in  a  great  measure  destitute 
of  organic  matter,  and  hence  the  failure.  We  do  noi  stop  now  to 
state  the  reason  in  greater  detail ;  this  subject  will  be  considered 
fully  hereafter.  In  the  second  instance,  the  clay  soil,  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  crop  did  not  appear  to  be  benefitted  by  marl  was  no 
doubt  true,  but  the  speaker  appears  not  to  have  at  all  apprehended 
the  cause;  it  was  not  because  it  was  a  clay  soil,  but  because  there 
was  already  enough  lime  in  the  clay,  there  being  not  less  than  five 
per  cent.  We  find,  therefore,  that  the  result  of  simple  experiment, 
though  made  by  the  President  of  an  Agricultural  Society,  may 
entirely  mislead  a  community  when  all  the  associated  facts  are 
ignored.  It  turns  out  that  lime  is  a  fertilizer  only  upon  certain 
conditions;  those  conditions  must  be  complied  with.  Where  it 
already  exists  in  the  soil  to  a  large  amount,  it  can  only  be  useful 
in  a  Caustic  state.  In  this  condition  it  affects  both  the  chemical 
and  mechanical  condition,  but  is  not  necessary  to  form  certain  com- 
binations by  which  a  fertilizing  substance  is,  as  it  were,  generated 
or  in  part  formed. 

Experiments  then,  to  be  useful,  must  be  ccnducted  with  a  know- 
ledge of  all  the  essential  points  which  bear  upon  the  results  obtained. 
The  nature  of  the  soil  must  be  understood — the  general  composition 
of  the  fertilizers  employed.  In  other  words  the  experimenter  must 
know  what  he  is  about. 


14  NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL,  8UEVET. 


CHAPTEK  n. 

The  difficulty  of  classifying  soils  systematically.  Varieties  of  soils.  Soil  ele- 
ments. Derivation.  Composition  of  rocks  which  furnish  soils.  Weight  of 
soils.  Average  quantity  of  silex  in  soils.  Carbonate  of  lime  in  soils.  Losses 
vphich  soils  sustain  in  cultivation  well  established.  Temperature  an  essential 
element  in  productive  soils.  Soils  of  the  Southern  States  remain  in  situ. 
Organic  elements  of  soils.     Inorganic  elements,  etc. 

§  6.  Soils  cannot  be  systematically  classified.  We  may 
divide  them  so  that,  considered  in  the  extreme,  the  strong  lines  of 
demarkation  will  appear  quite  distinct,  as  a  clay  soil  and  a  sandy 
one,  but  these  graduate  into  each  other  and  the  lines  of  demarka- 
tion disappear  insensibly.  So  we  find  peaty  soils,  and  in  districts 
where  chalk  underlies  the  surface  soil,  we  may  distini;uish  a  cal-, 
careous  soil,  but  both  kinds  lose  their  characteristics  by  intermix- 
tures of  clay  and  sand.  We  may  however,  say  with  truth,  of  any 
particular  locality,  that  it  has  an  argilaceous,  calcareous  or  sandy 
soil  as  the  case  may  be.  Such  a  statement  should  be  made,  but 
this  does  not  amount  to  a  classification.  We  shall  not,  therefore, 
attempt  the  arrangement  of  soils  into  a  systematic  classification  ;  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  in  our  nomenclature  the  predominant 
element,  whether  it  is  clay,  sand,  lime  or  vegetable  matter.  It  is 
not,  however,  proper  to  omit  the  statement  that  sand  or  silex  is  the 
basis  of  all  soils  except  those  in  which  organic  matter  greatly  pre- 
ponderates, for,  in  clay  soils  silex  still  exceeds  in  quantity  the  clay, 
but  still  clay  maslxs  the  silex,  though  it  is  less  than  one-half,  and 
hence  has  to  be  treated  as  an  argilaceous  soil. 

But  the  real  nature  of  soil  is  not  fully  stated,  by  any  means  when 
they  are  merely  referred  generally  to  the  preponderating  element, 
there  is  left  out  of  view  certain  elements  which,  so  far  as  fertility  is 
concerned,  are  quite  as  important,  though  they  exist  only  in  minute 
proportions.  We  shall,  however,  take  the  ground  tliat  all  the  ele- 
ments of  a  soil  are  important,  and  take  away  entirely  any  one  of 
them  and  its  fertility  will  be  aff'ected  for  certain  crops  at  least,  if 
not  for  all. 

§  7.  The  soil  elements  are  only  few,  when  compared  with  the 
number  of  known  simple  bodies;  thas,  while  the  known  elements 
amount  to  about  sixty-two  or  three,  only  about  thirteen  or  fourteen 


NOETH-OAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  15 

play  any  considerable  part  for  the  benefit  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  latter  are  embraced  in  the  following  list,  viz:  Oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, nitrogen,  sulphur,  carbon,  phosphorus,  the  base  of  silex,  or 
silicon  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  clay  or  alumine,  iron  and 
manganese.  Iodine  and  chorine  also  exist  in  plants  and  soils. 
Potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia  are  compounds  of  oxygen  and  a  metal, 
whose  names  terminate  in  %im — as  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  &c. 
The  first  seven  which  stand  in  the  list,  are  unmetalic  bodies,  the 
last  seven  are  metals.  Oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  in  their 
free  or  uncombined  states,  are  aeriform  bodies;  the  others  are 
solids  possessing  different  weights.  The  foregoing  bodies  or  ele- 
ments exist  in  the  rocks  which  compose  the  earth's  crust,  not  how- 
ever as  simple  bodies,  but  in  combination  with  each  other,  forming 
what  are  usually  known  as  simple  minerals.  Thus,  quartz,  mica,  fels- 
par, hornblende,  talc,  serpentine,  carbonate  of  lime  consist  of  these 
elements,  and  furnish  them  when  they  decompose  or  disintegrate  into 
soil.  The  foregoing  minerals  constitute  the  great  mass  of  the  earth's 
crust.  To  take  an  example  of  the  number  of  elements  which  a 
simple  mineral  as  hornblende  furnishes  may  be  seen  by  the  results 
of  analysis.  Thus  hornblende,  felspar  and  serpentine  ai*e  compos- 
ed of 

HOENBLENDB^      FELffPAB.      BKBPENTINE. 

Silex,   45.69  66.75  43.07 

Alumine,    12.18  17.50  0.25 

Lime,    13.83  1.25  0.50 

Potash  and  Soda,    12.00  12.75 

Magnesia,    18.79         40.37 

Oxide  of  Iron  and  Manganese,    7.32  0.75  1.11 

A  simple  or  homogeneous  substance,  therefore,  furnishes  many 
soil  elements,  and  as  rocks,  such  as  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  horn- 
blende, are  made  up  of  several  minerals  in  mixture,  or  are  aggre- 
gates, we  may  see  how  a  single  rock  furnishes  all  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  nutrition. 

The  rocks  which  are  composed  usually  of  simple  minerals,  yield 
one  or  two  elements  in  excess :  silex  and  alumine,  and  hence  these 
necessarily  predominate  in  most  soils.  Almost  all  of  these  minerals 
furnish  other  bodies  in  minute  doses,  potash,  and  soda,  together  with 
combinations  of  lime  and  silex,  potash  and  soda  with  phosphoric  acid. 


16  NORTa-CAROLlNA  GEOLOGICAL   STTETEY. 

The  latter  forms  such  small  proportions  that  thej  were  at  one  time  set 
down  as  accidental  and  unessential  soil  elements,  but  now  they  are 
known  to  be  all-important. 

§  8.  The  mechanical  condition  and  weight  of  any  soil  depends 
upon  the  existence  of  the  predominating  element.  Sandy  soils 
have  a  loose  porous  texture  while  an  argilaceous  one  has  a  close 
one,  and  may  be  impervious  to  water. 

The  weight  of  soils  is  dependent  of  course  upon  composition* 

A  cubic  foot  of  dry  silicious  soil  weighs,* 111.3  pounds, 

A  sandy  clay, 97.8 

Calcareous  sand, 113.6 

Loamy  clay, 88.5 

Stiff  clay,    80.3 

Slaty  marl, 112. 

A  soil  richly  charged  With  vegetable  mould,    , .     68.7 

Common  arable  soil, 84.5 

The  average  weight  is  about  94.58,  and  when  charged  with  water 
will  Weigh  126.6  pounds. 

§  9.  Soils  which  are  formed  from  the  debris  of  rocks,  contain  a 
large  though  variable  proportion  of  sand  and  silex.  Of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  soils  of  Massachusetts,  the  average  quantity  of 
silex  is  T1.733.  This  is  insoluble  matter.  The  soluble  and  that  which 
is  fitted  ultimately  to  enter  into  the  composition  of  vegetables  is 
about  15  per  cent.,  of  which  2.075  is  a  salt  of  lime.  The  midland 
counties  of  ]^.  Carolina  furnish  coincident  results.  But  the  eastern 
counties,  which  have  extensive  tracts  of  swamp  lands,  differ  con- 
siderably from  the  foregoing.  The  silex  and  aluminein  many  large 
tracts,  amounts  to  less  than  50  per  cent.,  and  sometimes  is  even 
less  than  five,  oi  indeed  must  be  classed  as  a  peat  unsuitable  to 
cultivation. 

Of  lime,  which  is  so  much  talked  about,  and  is  truly  an  essential 
element  in  soil,  it  appears  from  hundreds  of  analyses,  that  it  rarely 
exists  in  large  proportions.  Such  is  the  case  in  the  soils  of  New 
York,  even  where  tliey  overlie  a  limestone,  its  average  quantity 
rarely  exceeds  one  per  cent.,  and  in  large  tracts  it  scarcely  comes 


Dana's  Muck  Manual,  p.  36. 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  17 

ti'p  to  on^-half  of  one  per  cent.  In  the  western  States  there  is  about 
1.50  per  cent.  In  48  European  soils,  noticed  by  Dana,  it  is  1.860. 
European  soils  agree  generally  with  American  ;  all  things,  there- 
fore, being  equal,  their  treatment  with  fertilizers  will  be  based  upon 
similar  rules.  We  must  not,  however,  disregard  the  influence  of 
climate  and  temperature.  These  are  important  elements  in  agri- 
culture, but  so  far  as  the  composition  of  the  soils  of  all  the  great 
geographical  divisions  are  concerned,  their  differences  have  arisen 
from  cultivation  mainly ;  in  their  natural  state  they  were  much  alike. 

§  10.  Soils  are  analyzed  for  the  purpose  of  determining  their  con- 
stituents. Under  long  cultivation  some  of  the  important  elements 
are  so  much  diminished  that  fertility  cannot  be  claimed  for  them. 
We  shall  show  hereafter  how  soils  become  infertile, and  what  becomes 
of  the  fertilizing  matter.  The  proof  that  soils  actually  part  with  cer- 
tain elements  essential  to  fertility  has  been  fully  ascertained  and  de- 
termined. This  result  is  certainly  due  to  chemistry,  and  it  is  a  great 
result ;  for,  for  a  long  time  the  contrary  was  maintained,  and  even 
now  many  believe  that  by  a  rotation  of  crops  and  good  manipula- 
tion, soils  may  be  maintained  for  an  indeflnite  period  in  a  state  of 
productiveness.  So,  also,  it  has  been  believed,  and  is  still  in  cer- 
quarters,  that  lands  thrown  out  to  commons,  or  to  remain  a  few 
years  fallow,  will  recover  their  original  fertility.  The  sooner,  how- 
ever, such  opinions  are  abandoned  the  better,  as  they  lead  to  an 
erroneous  system  of  agriculture. 

A  destructive  practice  really  grew  out  of  the  doctrine,  it 
was  the  continued  use  of  the  axe  and  fire,  followed  by  long  fal- 
lows when  exhaustion  was  nearly  completed.  It  demanded  exten- 
sive plantations,  and  had  such  a  system  of  extermination  of  timber 
been  followed  in  a  more  northerly  clime,  the  loss  of  wood  and  tim- 
ber would  have  become  a  severe  calamity. 

§  11.  I  have  observed  that  temperature  independent  of  the 
composition  of  soil  is  an  essential  element  in  agricultural  practice. 
It  often  determines  the  kind  of  crop  as  well  as  the  season  when  it 
is  to  be  planted.  In  England  maize  finds  an  incompatible  climate, 
and  hence,  as  a  substitute  for  grain  wherewith  to  fatten  cattle,  root 
crops  as  the  turnip  is  resorted  to.  Maize  germinates  in  a  soil  when 
its  temperature  is  as  low  as  60°,  and  also  when  it  rises  to  105. 
Germination  is  however  arrested  when  the  temperture  reaches  116- 
120.     In  tropical  regions  the  order  of  things  is  somewhat  changed. 


18  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVEY. 

So  much  heat  exists  in  the  period  answering  to  our  summer  that 
wheat,  barley  and  oats  are  sown  in  the  coolest  months.  So  in 
mountainous  regions,  temperature  becomes  the  controlling  element. 
In  the  latitude  of  the  Swiss  Alps  in  Europe,  wheat  ceases  to  germi- 
nate at  3400  feet  which  corresponds  to  the  latitude  of  64°. 
Oats,  at  3500,  corresponding  to  latitude,  64° 

Kye,  at  4600,  corresponding  to  latitude,  67° 

Barley,  4800,  corresponding  to  latitude,  70° 

In  Northern  New  York  at  the  hight  of  2000  feet  above  the 
ocean,  wheat  is  an  uncertain  crop,  or  is  liable  to  be  cut  off  by  an 
early  frost ;  while  oats,  barley  and  rye  come  to  maturity.  So  far 
as  these  facts  go,  it  appears  that  the  solid  masses  of  the  globe  as 
the  rocks,  have  little  influence  upon  crops;  but  at  the  same  time 
cultivation  never  fails  to  produce  its  influence,  that  of  impoverish- 
ing the  soil. 

I  have  shown  in  a  former  report  that  the  soils  of  the  Southern 
States  are  not  only  formed  from  the  rocks  of  the  country,  but  that 
the}^  remain  upon  the  place  where  they  are  formed  or  in  situ. 
The  proof  may  be  found  in  every  railroad  cutting  from  Virginia  to 
Alabama.  Wherever  a  quartz  vein  penetrated  the  rock  it  remains 
unchanged  in  position,  it  presents  the  interesting  and  curious  phe- 
nomenon of  an  irregular  band  which  seems  now  to  have  been 
forced  through  yielding  and  soft  materials.  Quartz  veins  standing 
up  for  20  feet  unsupported  except  by  soft  yielding  materials.  It  is 
rare  to  see  any  thing  of  the  kind  in  New  York  or  New  England. 
There,  at  some  former  period  such  soft  materials  with  their  veins 
of  quartz  were  swept  off  by  a  mighty  flood  of  waters.  This  erosion 
no  doubt  extended  deeply  or  down  to  the  solid  plane  of  rock.  No 
flood  however,  has  disturbed  the  debris  of  rocks  in  North-Carolina, 
and  hence  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  this  debris  is  really  one  of  the 
most  ancient  products  of  the  globe,  equaling  in  age  the  Silurian  or 
Devonian  systems  ;  still  there  is  no  clue  by  which  its  age  can  be 
exactly  determined,  it  is  now  a  soil  often  25  to  50  feet  deep.  This 
condition  of  the  soil  no  doubt  has  some  important  influence  upon 
its  agricultural  capabilities.  The  plough  in  many  places  must  con- 
tinue to  bring  up  for  years  an  unexhausted  soil  where  the  mass  is 
penetrable.  This  new  soil  turned  up  by  deep  plo  ighing,  however, 
is  necessarily  coarse,  especially  where  it  is  derived  from  the  coarse 
schists,  as  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  hence  it  requires  before  it  is  really 


NOETH-GAEOLINA   GEOLOGtCAL    SURVEY.  19 

prepared  to  receive  a  crop  to  be  exposed  to  the  chemical  influence 
of  the  air  and  the  action  of  frosts  whose  effects  are  mainlj  to  in- 
crease its  fineness. 

§  12.  Simple  bodies  enumerated  in  a  foregoing  paragraph  seem 
to  require  a  fuller  notice,  particularly  as  to  their  properties  or  func- 
tions as  soil  elements.  Wlien  either  of  them  is  isolated  they  ap- 
pear to  be  neutral  bodies ;  that  is,  they  manifest  but  little  disposi- 
tion to  form  combinations.  Nitrogen  and  hydrogen  would  re- 
main in  contact  w^itli  each  other  for  ages  wn'thout  entering  into 
combination.  Oxygen  and  hydrogen  never  combine  when  con- 
fined together  in  a  vessel,  A  force  is  necessary  ti  >  effect  it  in  eitlier 
case.  A  flame  however,  unites  them  suddenly,  attended  with  a 
violent  explosion.  When  burnt  in  streams  issuing  from  small 
orifices,  they  combine  evolving  great  heat  and  intense  light.  The 
product  of  combination  is  water,  and  nothing  else.  Most  bodies 
have  a  strong  aflinity  for  oxygen  ;  and  hence,  it  is  an  element 
common  to  most  solids.  The  air  or  atmosphere  is  composed  of  oxy- 
gen and  nitrogen,  water,  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  iron  rust  of 
iron  and  oxygen  ;  potash,  of  oxygen  and  potassium;  soda,  of  oxy- 
gen and  sodium ;  lime,  of  oxj'gen  and  calcium.  The  general 
term  for  compounds  of  the  metals  with  oxygen  is,  '^'oxide^  as  (>xide 
of  iron,  manganese,  lead,  copper,  &c.  Oxygen  when  isolated  is 
always  aeriform;  and  has  never  been  condensed  into  a  solid  or 
liquid.  It  is  the  essential  element  in  combustion  as  usually  under- 
stood, and  is  the  only  body  capable  of  supporting  life  by  respiration. 
"When  the  word  oxygen  occurs  we  can  scarcely  fail  to  be  remind- 
ed of  it  agency  in  sustaining  life,  and  for  supporting  combustion. 
From  these  two  facts,  we  may  proceed  farther,  and  call  to  mind 
that  it  forms  a  great  class  of  bodies,  called  oxides.  ISTeithercan  we 
fail  to  consider  that  it  changes  the  condition  of  all  bodies  with  which 
it  unites.  Water  is  unlike  oxygen  or  hydrogen.  Oxide  ot  iron 
has  no  property  in  common  with  either  of  its  elements. 

§  13.    Htdkogen,  is  the  lightest  body  known,  and  is  always  aei- 
form  except  when  in  combination.      It  lias  neither  taste  or  smell, 


*  The  word  oxide,  properly  terminates  in  ide  and  not  yde^  because  in  framing 
the  nomenclature,  this  termination  was  fixed  upon  ;  according  to  idiom  it  would 
be  spelt  oxyde. 


20  NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOaiCAL   SURVEY. 

and  is  never  found  in  nature  uncombined  with  other  bodies.  Al- 
though it  exists  in  many  bodies  as  oils,  and  those  which  are  termed 
organic,  yet  water  is  the  body  in  which  it  most  abounds — not  that 
its  proportion  is  greatest  in  water,  but  the  general  diffusion  of  wa- 
ter over  the  globe  and  in  most  bodies,  makes  it  the  great  source  of 
this  element. 

§  14.  ISTiTKOGEN,  is  another  aeriform  body,  neutral  and  of  little 
power  ;  it  would  seem  almost  destitute  of  affinty,  for  other  bodies, 
if  we  judge  of  its  perperties  as  it  exists  in  the  atmosphere.  Indeed, 
though  it  has  feeble  affiinities,  it  is  for  that  reason,  an  element  of 
one  of  the  most  powerfully  corrosive  bodies  known.  Nitric  acid 
for  example  is  only  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  but  who  ventures  to 
taste  it  the  second  time,  notwithstanding  we  inhale  the  elements  of 
nitric  acid  at  every  breath.  What  substance  is  more  singular  than 
ammonia,  or  harthorn,  which  is  only  nitrogen  and  hydrogen 
chemically  combined.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel  that  nitrogen 
performs  important  functions  in  the  soil. 

§  15.  Carbon,  is  a  solid.  We  feel  relieved  when  a  solid  pres- 
ents itself,  something  to  be  seen  and  handled.  It  is  pure  in  the 
diamond  ;  nearly  so  in  anthracite  coal,  and  in  the  purest  charcoal. 
It  has  only  a  feeble  disposition  to  combine  with  other  bodies.  Heat 
materially  puts  its  particles  in  a  combining  state.  It  forms  with 
oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  an  aeriform  body  sufficiently  heavy  to  be 
poured  from  a  tumbler.  If  poured  upon  flame  it  extinguishes  it, 
showing  that  though  one  of  its  elements  is  a  combustible  and  the 
other  a  supporter  of  it,  that  it  is  itself  an  extinguisher  when  applied 
to  burning  bodies,  and  hence  has  been  and  may  be  used  to  extin- 
guish lires — when  inhaled,  it  acts  as  poison  to  the  system ;  and  yet 
in  all  organic  bodies  it  is  a  basis  of  support. 

§  17.  The  four  preceding  elements  are  often  called  by  way  of 
distinction,  the  organic  elements  of  bodies  ;  because  all  bodies 
which  are  organized  are  composed  mainly  of  them.  The  following 
examples  will  show  more  clearly  than  any  other  statement,  the 
fact  alluded  to.  For  example,  hay,  in  1,000  pounds,  is  composed 
of: 

LBS. 

Carbon,    458 

Hydrogen,    50 

Oxygen,    337 

Nitrogen,   15 


TfOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   8UETEY.  21 

in  which  is  found  90  pounc's  of  inorganic  matter  called  ash,  the 
product  of  combustion.     Potatoes  is  composed  of: 

I.E3. 

Carbon,    440 

Hydrogen,    58 

Oxygen,    447 

Nitrogen,    15,  Ash  40  lbs. 

Oats  is  composed  of: 

Carbon,  507 

Hydrogen,    —  64 

Oxygen,    367 

Nitrogen,    22, Ash40 lbs. 

Wheat  is  composed  of: 

Carbon, 461 

Hydrogen,    58 

Oxygen 434 

Nitrogen,    23,Ash241bs. 

■  The  constituents  of  animal  bodies  are  quite  different,  though  the 
same  elements  are  usually  found.  Thus  in  lean  beef  blood,  white 
of  eggs,  there  is  found: 

Carbon,    , 55  per  cent. 

Hydrogen,    7 

Nitrogen,    16 

Oxygen, 22 

The  propriety,  therefore,  of  calling  these  four  elements  or- 
ganic is  not  improper;  it  is  true,  however,  that  inorganic  mat- 
ter is  always  present.  It  seems  to  be  necessary  wherewith  to 
form  a  species  of  skeleton,  especially  in  such  bodies  as  hay,  oats, 
and  wheat.  In  animal  bodies,  as  hair  and  wool,  sulphur  is  an  im- 
portant element,  as  well  as  phosphorus.  In  the  solid  structures, 
as  bone,  phosphorus,  an  element  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  is 
always  present  in  the  largest  proportion. 

All  good  soils  have  their  organic  parts.  When,  therefore,  the 
organic  constituent  of  a  soil  is  referred  to,  we  are  necessarily  re- 


22  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

minded  of  the  fact  that  it  consists  of  these  four  elements,  carbon, 
oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  or  that  it  may  be  resolved  into 
them. 

It  is  not  to  be  concealed,  however,  that  there  are  numerous 
bodies  belonging  to  the  organic  kingdoms  in  which  nitrogen  is 
absent,  as  starch,  gnm,  sugar,  and  the  essential  oils. 

§  18.  Sulphur  is  a  M'ell  known  substance,  of  a  yellow  color, 
and  a  faint,  peculiar  odor.  It  burns  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  giving 
off  at  the  same  time  a  pungent  suffocating  vapor,  which  consists  of 
oxygen  and  sulphurin  combination.  One  pound  of  sulphur  will 
make  three  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitrei.  Sulphur  is 
present  in  many  substances.  Mustard  seed  contains  it  in  a  large 
proportion  ;  it  is  also  always  present  in  eggs,  and  which  in  conse- 
quence blackens  silver;  in  wheat  it  is  present,  particularly  in  its 
gluten  ;  also  in  lean  meat,  and  in  hair  and  wool,  in  which  it  forms 
nearly  one-twentieth  of  their  weight.  From  its  constancy  in  the 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  it  might  be  inferred  that  its  appli- 
cation to  the  soil  would  be  attended  with  favorable  results.  It  is 
however,  a  striking  example,  illustrating  numerous  other  cases, 
that  in  a  simple  condition  it  is  not  at  all  fitted  to  fulfil  the  office  of 
a  fertilizer,  although  it  is  not  entirely  insoluble  in  water.  It  may 
be  used,  however,  beneficially  in  its  simple  state  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  vegetables  from  the  attack  of  insects,  as  turnips,  cab- 
bages, &c.  '^• 

But  the  sulphur  of  organic  bodies,  as  hair,  wool,  mustard  seed, 
is  derived  from  salts  wdiich  contain  it;  gypsum  furnishes  it;  and 
other  sulphates,  as  the  sulphate  of  soda  (glauber  salts)  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  etc.  In  this  fact  we  find  an  illustration  of  the  power  of 
organic  bodies  to  appropriate  elements  which  are  locked  up  in 
chemical  combinations.  Nothing  is  created  in  the  vegetable  tissue ; 
it  is  only  possible  for  it  to  decompose  and  appropriate  such  bodies 
as  they  require  in  growth,  and  each  organ  performs  an  indepen- 
dent office,  and  takes  only  that  which  its  constitution  demands. 
Thus  the  chaff  of  wheat  differs  in  composition  from  the  enclosed 
grain  ;  and  the  hair  differs  in  composition  from  the  skin,  upon 
which  it  is  supported. 

§  19.  Phosphorus  is  a  yellowish,  waxy  substance,  extremely 
inflammable,  and  even  consumes  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  but 
does  not  burst  into  a  flame  except  its  temperature  is  slightly  ele-  - 


NOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  23 

vated.  Friction  upon  a  rough  board  sets  it  on  fire.  The  common 
hicifer  match  is  a  good  ilhistration  of  the  fa^t,  and  tlie  vapor  given 
off  in  the  act  of  combustion  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  phos- 
phorus. 

It  is  generally  diffused  in  the  organic  kingdoms ;  in  certain  parts, 
as  bones,  it  is  far  more  abundant  than  sulphur  in  other  tissues.  It 
is  contained  in  the  substance  of  brain.  Wherever  a  compound 
word,  as  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  soda,  etc.  occurs,  they 
will  at  once  suggest  to  the  mind  of  the  farmer  the  combustible 
substance,  phosphorus,  or  it  may  be  the  lucifer  match ;  but  as  in 
thev  case  of  sulphur,  the  simple  body  phosphorus  connot  be  em- 
ployed directly  as  a  fertilizer.  Combinations  of  it  must  first  be 
formed  with  oxygen,  and  then  the  acid  thus  formed  must  combine 
again  with  bodies  which  are  called  bases,  as  lime  and  potash. 
These  form  the  base  with  which  a  salt  is  the  final  result.  In  the 
condition  of  a  salt  then,  which  is  a  body  composed  of  an  acid  and 
a  base,  both  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  brought  into  a  condition 
in  which  they  may  be  employed  as  fertilizers.  The  composition  of 
the  salt  is  indicated  by  its  name.  Sulphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of 
lime,  nitrate  of  lime,  the  latter  indicating  the  presence  oi  nitrogen, 
and  by^going  back  a  step,  it  will  be  understood  that  nitric  acid  is 
implied,  a  compound  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen. 

§  20.  The  simple  minerals  from  which  soils  are  mainly  derived, 
are  felspar,  hornblende  and  trap  mica  serpentine,  talc,  carbonate 
of  lime.  Their  composition  which  has  been  given  shows  what  ele- 
ments they  respectively  furnish  for  the  soil.  Silex,  which  we  find 
in  the  condition  of  sand,  is  a  common  product  even  of  serpentine. 
But  of  the  others  we  find  felspar  furnishes  potash  and  soda,  and  one 
kind  of  felspar  furnishes  lime.  Serpentine  and  talc  abounds  in 
magnesia,  and  so,  also,  certain  kinds  of  limestone,  particularly  those 
called  dolomites.  Hornblende  furnishes  lime  and  but  a  trace  of 
potash  or  soda.  Hornblende  is,  however,  generally  of  a  dark  green 
color,  a  color  which  is  mainly  due  to  iron,  and  hence  soils  derived 
from  hornblende  and  trap,  which  is  also  dark  colored,  are  generally 
red,  for  the  reason  that  the  iron  when  set  free  from  its  combina- 
tions, takes  more  oxygen  and  forms  thereby  a  red  peroxide  of  iron. 
"When  we  find  a  soil  derived  thus  from  hornblende,  and  knowing 
also  the  composition  of  the  mineral,  we  safely  infer  that  the  soil 
will  contain  a  sufiiciency  of  lime.     A  felspar  soil  is  often  gray,  but 


24:  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SUKTET. 

when  iron  is  present  in  one  or  more  of  the  elements  of  gninile,  it 
will  charge  to  a  red  which  indicates  a  better  soil  than  the  gray. 
Granite  soils  are  often  very  silicious,  in  which  case  they  are  coarse 
and  poor  or  meagre  in  consequence  of  the  great  excess  of  quartz  in 
the  <>-ranite.  The  granite  soils  of  ISTorth-Carolinaj however,  are  gene- 
rally very  good,  or  are  less  meagre  than  in  many  other  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Where  felspar  and  mica  predominate  over  the 
quartz  element  in  granite,  the  soil  resembles  an  hornblende  soil  in 
color,  and  in  composition  we  may  expect  a  larger  per  centage  of 
potash. 

Hence  we  obtain  approximately  several  important  facts  r^ative 
to  the  composition  of  a  soil  when  we  have  ascertained  its  origin. 
It  will  appear  also,  that  this  information  may  be  obtained  with 
greater  exactitude  in  the  Southern  than  in  the  Northern  or  Western 
States,  where  the  soil  has  been  transported  to  a  distance  from  its 
jDarent  bed. 

§  21.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  original  source  of  nutriment  for 
the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  may  be  traced  back  to  the  rocks 
and  mineralo  ;  it  is  still  required  that  we  also  show  as  correctly  as 
possible  how  the  seemingly  insoluble  debris  of  the  globe's  crust  be- 
comes food,  or  is  fitted  for  its  high  and  important  function.  The 
fact  itself  is  based  on  observation  and  experiment.  For  example, 
the  process  of  disintegration  goes  on  under  our  eyes.  We  see  rocks 
crumbling  to  a  coarse  powder  which  becomes  by  the  continuance 
of  atmospheric  action  still  finer.  If  in  any  stage  the  composition  of 
the  rock  is  determined  by  analysis,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  similar 
elements.  But  still  the  debris  may  and  often  does  lose  a  portion 
of  the  mass,  by  solution.  Granite  contains  in  its  felspar,  potash  or 
soda  ;  both  substances  are  finally  washed  out  by  water,  or  are  per- 
fectly set  free  from  their  combinations,  and  become  soluble  matters 
in  the  soil  under  other  chemical  states;  those  for  example,  which 
are  called  organic  salts  of  potash  or  soda.  We  are  required  to  look 
upon  all  the  solid  parts  of  the  earth  as  in  a  state  of  change  ;  everj"- 
particle  is  in  motion,  nothing  at  rest.  Some  compounds  it  is  true, 
are  much  more  stable  than  others.  Quartz  for  example,  when  un- 
mixed with  other  bodies,  appears  to  iis  stable.  But  felpar  and 
mica  are  constantly  undergoing  change.  The  same  maybe  said  of 
hornblende,  trap,  mica,  serpentine,  talc,  carb.  of  lime,  etc.  A  double 
change  is  in  progress.    1st,  the. mass  is  mechanically  divided  ;  and 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  25 

2d.  It  is  changed  chemieallj.  A  piece  of  felspar,  hornblende,  or 
trap  splits  into  thousands  of  particles.  The  surface  is  thereby 
greatly  increased.  In  this  condition  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  at- 
mosphere acts  upon  its  potash.  This  aids  greatly  in  breaking  up 
the  affinities  between  the  silex  and  alumine,  and  the  consequence 
is  that  in  the  masses  the  silex  chrystalizes  out;  the  bond  that 
united  all  the  elements  of  felspar  and  formed  an  homogeneous 
mass  is  broken.  In  the  original  compound  as  felspar,  the  mineral 
was  a  silicate  of  alumine  and  potash,  soda  or  lime,  but  carbonic 
acid  having  combined  with  one  of  the  alkalies  and  formed  a  car- 
bonate instead  of  a  silicate,  both  the  silex  and  alumina  are  set  free, 
and  the  particles  of  silex  will  come  together,  and  those  of  the 
alumine  also.  In  the  first  mineral  we  perceive  the  grains  of 
quartz  or  flint,  and  in  the  latter  the  pure  clay.  Molecular  force,  as 
it  is  called,  brings  together  like  particles.  Under  the  operation  of 
these  molecular  forces,  felspar  will  not  be  reformed,  though  all  the 
elements  are  present  at  one  time ;  but  in  process  of  time  all  the 
carbonate  of  potash  is  dissolved  out.  An  ultimate  result  which  is 
quite  obvious  from  inspection  of  beds  of  decomposing  granite  is 
the  finding  of  a  pure  white  bed  of  clay,  called  porcelain  clay,  inr 
terraixed  with  fragments  of  quartz,  together  with  nodules  of  flint,, 
as  they  would  be  called,  and  which  are  often  hollow  and  their  in- 
terior lined  with  fine  crystals  of  quartz.  The  nodules  are  derived 
from  the  silex  of  the  felspar,  which  was  in  combination  with  the 
alumine  and  potash.  In  this  condition  we  see  a  perfect  change  o>f 
state.     Analogous  changes  are  in  progress  all  the  time. 

§  22.  From  the  foregoing  it  may  be  seen  that  lime,  potash,  soda> 
silex,  etc.,  are  originally  rock  constituents,  which  by  a  process  of 
decay  become  parts  of  the  soil,  and  thereby  accessible  to  the  roots 
of  plants.  So  also  sulphur  and  phosphorus  belong  to  the  common 
compounds  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  first  is  extremely  abundant 
in  a  class  of  bodies  called  sulphates  or  sulphides  ^  combinations  of 
metals  with  sulphur,  as  sulphuret  of  iron,  so  generally  difi'used  in 
nature.  It  is  known  to  be  present  by  heating  the  body,  when  the 
peculiar  bluish  flame  appears,  accompanied  with  the  suffocating 
odor  of  sulphur.  Phosphorus,  though  less  common,  is  probably 
always  diffused  through  granite,  but  it  is  known  to  be  more  con- 
stant and  more  abundant  in  that  class  of  rocks,  called  trajp^  in 
which  also  potash  and  other  alkalies  are  constituents.  Hence,  aa 
2 


26  NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

trap,  M'hen  it  decomposes,  furnishes  an  aluminous  basis  for  a  soil, 
and  is  at  the  same  time  impregnated  with  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
and  the  alkalies,  their  soils  are  eminently  adapted  to  the  wheat 
crop.  The  gluten  of  wheat  requires  sulphur  and  phospliorus,  as 
well  as  potash  in  certain  combinations. 

Tlie  organic  constituents  of  the  soil  exist  also  as  mineral  bodies 
in  the  soils,  and  also  rocks ;  oxygen  in  combination  with  all  the 
elements  of  soil,  hydrogen  in  water,  and  nitrogen  in  tlie  nitrates, 
and  the  atmosphere  diffused  in  the  soil,  where  it  is  an  active  body, 
ever  ready  to  form  ammonia  with  hydrogen  when  water  is  de- 
composed. 

•  §  23.  A  substance  which  is  not  simple  requires  in  this  place  a 
further  notice,  because  its  office  is  an  important  one  in  the  vegeta- 
ble economy ;  it  is  carbonic  acid.  The  atmosphere  is  regarded  as 
its  source.  It  is,  however,  generated  in  the  soil.  Its  solvent  prop- 
erties are  among  its  most  important  properties.  It  is,  notwith- 
standing, a  feeble  acid,  and  a  feeble  solvent,  water  charged  with  it 
dissolves  rocks,  and  the  indispensable  com-ponnd,  phosjyhaie  of  lime, 
is  dissolved  by  it,  and  being  thereby  brought  into  a  soluble  state 
by  water,  it  becomes  accessible  to  the  roots  of  plants  when  diffused 
in  this  menstruum.  In  the  atmosphere  it  forms  only  one  two- 
thousandth  part.  It  is  maintained  that  leaves  absorb  it  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  obtain  thereby  the  carbon  required  to  build  struc- 
tures. StilJ,  water  in  the  soil  holds  it  in  solution,  and  from  this 
source  it  is  furnished  in  a  direct  way  to  the  vegetable.  It  is  also 
furnished  to  growing  plants  by  peat,  and  the  changes  which  or- 
ganic matter  undergoes  in  the  soil;  there  is,  therefore,  an  aerial 
source  from  which  the  leaves  or  upper  structures  of  plants  obtain 
it,  and  a  sub-aerial  source  from  whence  the  vegetable  gets  it  by 
the  roots.  The  latter  are  the  channels  by  which  the  former  may 
feed  it  to  his  growing  crop.  The  organic  part  of  the  plant,  that 
in  which  carbon  is  so  abundant,  is  that  which  is  consumed  in  com- 
bustion. The  products  are  all  volatile,  and  hence,  are  dissipated. 
It  is  by  far  the  heaviest  and  most  bulk}'-  part  of  the  vegetable. 
That  which  is  left  after  combustion  is  the  inorganic  part,  and  .con- 
sists of  lime,  silejs,  potash,  raajgnesia,  soda,  iron,  etc.. 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  27 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  organic  part  of  a  soil  and  variety  of  names  under  which  it  is  known,  changes 
which  it  undergoes,  and  the  formation  of  new  bodies  by  the  absorption  of  oxy- 
gen. Fertilizers  in  North-Carolina.  Green  crops.  Mutual  action  of  the  ele- 
ment5  of  soils  upon  each  other.  Composition  of  one  or  two  of  the  chemical 
products  of  soils  showing  the  source  of  carbon  in  the  plant 

§  24:.  The  organic  part  of  a  soil  consist  apparently  of  carbona- 
ceous matter,  and  taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  the  brown  or  blackish  part, 
and  which  is  consumed  when  ignited.  Its  appearance,  indeed,  is 
due  to  a  species  of  combustion  which  is  carried  just  far  enougli  to 
char  the  vegetable  matter.  In  warm  climates  it  is  nearly  all  con- 
sumed, while  in  cold  it  constantly  accumulates,  and  forms  at  the 
surface  a  coat  of  blackish  mould.  The  term  organic  applies  to  this 
part  of  the  soil.  On  the  mountains  of  this  State  it  is  often  more 
than  a  foot  thick.  In  the  swamps  of  the  eastern  counties  it  is  often 
ten  feet  thick,  while  in  the  midland  counties  it  is  only  sufficient  to 
give  a  brown  stain  to  the  surface.  It  does  not  seem  to  accumulate 
in  consequence  of  a  slow  combustion,  or  as  it  may  be  termed  decay 
which  takes  place. 

In  common  language,  the  organic  part  is  known  under  a  variety 
of  names,  as  humus ^  mouldy  vegetable  mould.  It  is,  however,  a 
complex  substance,  and  is  constantly  undergoing  changes  which 
promote  vegetation.  Chemists  have  obtained  several  distinct  sub- 
stances from  it.  It  is  really  a  mixture  of  organic  and  inorganic 
bodies.  A  portion  of  the  organic  matter  is  free,  that  is,  it  is  un- 
combined  with  the  inorganic  part.  Other  parts  are  in  combination 
with  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  potash,  soda,  &c.  The  latter  are  soluble, 
and  also  fertilizing  matters,  and  play  an  important  part  in  vegeta- 
tion. The  cause  of  this  intermixture  of  organic  and  inorganic  mat- 
ter is  to  be  traced  to  its  origin.  Thus,  organic  matter  being  the 
debris  of  the  vegetables  which  had  grown  upon  the  soil,  it  must 
necessarily  contain  also  the  inorganic  part  which  belonged  to  the 
living  vegetables.  From  this  fact  it  may  be  inferred  that  this  mat- 
ter is,  in  the  proper  proportions,  to  be  employed  by  any  subsequent 
crop. 

§  25.  Yegetable  Matter  after  death  passes  through  a  series  of 
chemical  changes,  which  gives  origin  to  the  numerous  compounds 


28  KOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

found  in  organic  matter.  These  changes  are  due  mainly  to  the 
absorption  of  oxygen.  The  first  substance  formed  from 
woody  fibre  after  the  death  of  the  plant,  is  uhnic  acid.  Another 
portion  of  oxygen  changes  nlmic  acid  into  humio  acid i  and  the 
last  is  changed  into  geic  acid;  on  a  farther  oxydatiou  it  passes  into 
crenic  acid ;  and  finally  by  the  same  process  into  apoct'enic  acid. 
In  an  old  soil,  all  these  bodies  exist  simultaneously.  The  most  im- 
portant, or  those  which  are  immediately  active,  are  the  three  last, 
geic  acid,  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid.  All  the  foregoing  bodies  are 
the  products  of  the  decay  of  plants,  when  exposed  in  the  soil  to 
air  and  moisture.  They  cannot  be  distinguished  by  sight,  and  the 
whole  mass  is  simply  a  homogeneous  brown  substance.  But  it  is 
i^'ichly  charged  with  the  elements  of  fertility. 

We  may  omit  the  details  respecting  the  chemical  constitution  of 
these  bodies.     It  will  be  sufficient  to  state  in  this  place,  that  they 
are  feeble  acids  ;  and  yet  possess  considerable  affinity  for  inorganic 
matter,  lime,  magnesia,  ammonia,  potash,  soda,  iron,  etc.;  so  much 
80  as  to  combine  and  form  with  them  salts^  which  are  at  once  in 
the  proper  state  to  be  received  as  nutriment  into  the  tissue  of, 
growing  vegetables.     This  organic  matter,  however,  is  remarkable 
for  its  affinity  for  ammonia ;  the  result,  therefore,  is  that  this  im- 
portant substance  may  be  detected  in  vegetable  mould,  though  it 
may  be  chemically  nncombined  with  the  foregoing  acids ;  it  may 
be  present  as  a  mixture,  yet  being  present,  it  will  be  disposed  and 
ready  to  combine  with  the  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids,  in  both  of 
which  nitrogen  may  be  always  detected.     Organic  salts,  formed  by 
the  union  of  organic  acids,  with  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  ammonia, 
etc ,  are  the  proper  food  for  plants ;  and  hence,  it  will  be  a  maxim 
with  the  farmer  to  take  such  measures  as  the  nature  of  those  sub- 
stances require  to  increase  it  upon  all  occasions  which  occur.     The 
greater  the  amount  of  these  salts  in  his  soil,  the  greater  his  crops. 
§  26.  From  the  foregoing  statements  we  may  deduce  the  follow- 
ing principle,  that  there  is  a  mutual  action  of  the  organic  and  inor- 
ganic parts  of  the  soil  upon  each  other,  and  that  to  this  action  fer- 
tility is,  in  a  great  measure,  due. 

In  order  that  these  mutual  actions  may  be  better  understood,  we 
proceed  farther  and  state,  that  those  substances  which  are  called 
silicates,  have  but  a  slight  if  any  tendency  to  act  upon  each  other. 
They  are,  however,  gradually  decomposed  by  carbonic  acid,  the 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGtOAL   SURVEY.  20 

effect  of  which  is  to  form  with  the  base  of  the  silicate  a  carbonate. 
Thus  in  the  case  of  granite  and  similar  compounds,  the  felspar  and 
mica  which  are  silicates,  are  slowlj  decomposed,  and  the  alkali,  as 
potash,  or  alkaline  earths,  as  lime  and  magnesia,  or  even  iron  and 
manganese  of  the  rock,  lose  their  silica,  or  are  disengaged  there- 
from ;  and  the  carbonic  acid  combines  with  them.  These  being 
soluble  compounds,  are  liable  to  be  washed  out  and  carried  to  the 
sea,  while  the  insoluble  silicate  of  alumina,  or  its  pure  form,  remains 
behind.  The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  soil  is  relatively  richer 
in  clay  than  before,  and  the  longer  the  chemical  changes  are  going 
on,  the  larger  the  quantity  of  clay  in  the  soil ;  and  it  is  agreeable 
to  experience  that  soils  become  stiffer  by  cultivation.  By  this  pro- 
cess they  become  less  adapted  in  the  course  of  time  to  certain  crops 
in  consequence  of  this  change  of  constitution.  Large  districts 
which  once  grew  the  peach  luxuriantly,  seem  to  have  lost  in  part  the 
power  or  abilit}'-,  or,  at  any  rate,  the  peach  tree  does  not  thrive  so 
well  in  the  oldest  districts  of  New  York  and  New  England,  as  it 
did  in  the  early  period  of  their  settlement.  It  is  not  possible  prob- 
ably to  be  satisfied  fully  with  respect  to  the  cause  why  the  peach 
is  cultivated  with  difficulty,  but  the  fact  that  the  soil  by  cultivation 
becomes  more  close  and  compact,  may  be  remotely  connected  with 
the  change  we  have  stated.  It  has  been  attributed  to  a  change  of 
climate,  but  it  is  not  true  that  the  climate  has  changed,  and  hence 
we  are  disposed  to  refer  the  change  in  question  to  a  change  in  the 
soil. 

§  27.  In  North-Carolina  the  natural  supply  of  fertilizers  exists  in 
the  marls  of  the  lower  counties,  together  with  the  organic  matter 
of  the  swamps  and  bogs.  The  two  exist  often  in  juxtaposition. 
Experience  has  proved  that  marl  applied  to  exhausted  lands  is  often 
injurious.  Now  this  exhaustion  extends  to  the  organic  matter, 
though  it  also  exists  in  its  inorganic  also.  But  experience  further 
proves,  that  however  large  a  quantity  ot  the  latter  is  applied,  little 
benefit  is  secured  so  long  as  the  first  deficiency  exists.  We  may 
see  the  reason  why  no  organic  salts  can  be  formed  in  the  absence 
of  organic  matter.  The  inorganic  matter  cannot  find  the  proper 
elements  with  which  to  combine,  and  which  the  constitution  of  the 
vegetable  requires.  The  practical  inference  is,  that  marls  should 
be  composted  with  organic  matter,  as  leaves,  straw,  and  weeds, 
which  are  free  from  seeds,  or  anything  which  has  lived.     Or,  an- 


30  NOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   8UKVET. 

other  plan  may  be  pursued — supply  the  organic  matter  from  a 
green  crop,  as  a  crop  of  peas,  ploughed  in.  In  certain  parts  of  the 
State,  clover  or  buck-wheat  may  be  resorted  to.  The  gain  arising 
from  the  latter  practice,  arises  from  the  ability  of  these  crops  to 
take  from  the  atmosphere  the  organic  elements,  and  deliver  them 
to  the  soil,  a  process  over  which  the  planter  or  farmer  has  no  con- 
trol, except  the  institution  of  means.  Under  many  circumstances, 
the  organic  matter  may  be  supplied  more  cheaply  by  sowing  seed 
than  by  composting. 

The  importance  of  organic  matter  in  soils  has  been  sustained  by 
the  experience  of  ages ;  but  there  was  a  time  when  this  point  was 
denied  by  the  ablest  Chemists  of  the  age.  It  was  maintained,  that 
the  ash  or  the  inorganic  part  gave  to  the  soil  all  that  was  impor- 
tant, and  hence  certain  practices  were  recommended  which  were 
in  accordance  with  this  theory,  such  as  burning  manures,  burning 
turf  and  the  like.  Happily,  this  question  has  been  set  at  rest,  and 
the  best  Chemists  admit  those  views  which  the  experience  of  ages 
has  confirmed  independently  of  chemistry. 

§  28.  But  the  point  which  bears  more  immediately  upon  the 
principle  respecting  mutual  actions,  comes  in  play  subsequently  to 
the  decomposition  of  the  silicates ;  which,  so  far  as  inorganic  mat- 
ter is  concerned,  are  inert ;  but  the  lime  and  alkalies  once  freed 
from  their  original  combinations  with  silica,  becomes  fitted  to  act 
at  once  upon  organic  matter,  and  form  with  it  salts.  This  decom- 
position may  take  place  where  no  organic  matter  exists  by  the 
carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  but  it  happens  that  organic  com- 
pounds furnish  also  carbonic  acid  to  the  soil ;  for  it  is  displaced 
when  carbonate  of  lime  or  potash  is  acted  upon  by  an  organic  salt. 
Crenic  acid,  acting  upon  carbonate  of  lime,  sets  free  the  carbonic 
acid,  and  this,  in  its  turn,  acts  upon  the  silicates  to  decompose  them, 
and  thereby  sets  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earth  also  free.  There  is 
then  a  double  mutual  action,  as  it  were,  constantly  going  on  in  the 
soil,  by  which  nutriment  is  furnished  to  the  crop.  Some  physiolo- 
gists maintain  that  the  jpresence  of  a  living  Ijocly^  as  the  root  of  a 
growing  plant,  effects  decomposition  similar  to  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  in  converting  starch  into  sugar.  However  this  may 
be  w^e  are  inclined  to  beheve  that  the  root  has  power  to  act  and 
effect  changes  upon  the  elements  of  soil  which  are  unknown  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  chemist ;  and  many  substances  which  are  insolu- 


NOETH-CAEOLINA   (GEOLOGICAL   SUKVEY.  81 

ble  by  chemical  agencies,  become  soluble  by  the  action  of  the  roots 
of  vegetables. 

§  29.  The  foregoing  facts  and  principle  do  not  change  at  all  the 
action  of  the  farmer  ;  they  go  to  sustain  his  practice  in  providing 
fertilizers  by  means  of  composts,  formed  by  mixing  the  organic 
and  inorganic  bodies  together,  and  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them 
time  and  opportunity  to  effect  those  chemical  changes,  of  which 
we  have  spoken.  These  never  fail,  while  fertilizers  in  other  states 
do.  The  foregoing  are  some  of  the  chemical  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  soil,  and  which  are  mostly  due  to  the  presence  of 
organic  matter.  All  the  facts  go  to  prove  the  importance  of 
organic  matter,  and  the  necessity,  therefore,  to  supply  it  when 
from  any  cause  it  is  wanting  or  deficient  in  quantity. 

§  30.  In  addition  to  the  lime  and  other  mineral  bodies  which 
the  organic  salts  furnish  to  plants,  it  is  plain  that  carbon  is  also  one 
of  the  elements  supplied.  To  make  this  plain  we  annex  the  com- 
position of  one  or  two  of  these  organic  bodies.  Humate  of  am- 
monia consists  of: 

Carbon, 64.75 

Hydrogen, 5.06 

Oxygen,    26.22 

Nitrogen, 3.97 

Humate  of  ammonia,  it  will  be  perceived,  contains  more  than_ 
half  its  weight  of  carbon,  which  may  be  taken  up  in  the  circulating 
sap. 

Bnmic  acid  is  composed  of : 

Carbon,    65.30 

Hydrogen, 4.23 

Oxygen, 26.82 

It  will  follow,  from  the  foregoing,  that  carbon,  which  forms  the 
largest  pai-t  of  a  vegetable,  is  not  derived  entirely  from  the  atmos- 
phere. The  soil,  through  the  medium  of  the  roots  of  the  j)lant, 
famishes  at  least  a  part  of  this  essential  element.  In  certain  plants, 
as  wheat,  rye  and  oats,  it  is  very  possible  that  all  the  carbon  is 
derived  from  the  soil ;  while  in  beans,  clover,  lucerne,  etc.,  a  large 
proportion  may  be  derived  from  the  atmosphere. 


32  NOBTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

The  mechanical  condition  of  soils  diflfer.  Circulation  of  water  in  the  soil  with  its 
saline  matter.  Capability  of  bearing  drouth.  How  to  escape  from  the  effects 
of  drouth.     Temperature  of  soils.     Influenced  by  color.     Weight  of  soils,  etc. 

§  31.  The  mechanical  or  physical  conditions  of  soils  differ  accord- 
ing to  their  composition,  and  these  physical  differences  must  not 
be  disregarded.  It  is  well  known  that  a  clay  soil  contains  imder 
ordinary  circumstances,  more  water  than  a  mixture  of  clay  and 
sand,  and  much  more  than  sand  alone.  This  fact  may  or  may  not 
become  a  serious  injury  to  growing  crops.  It  will  depend  upon 
the  season.  If  it  is  very  wet  serious  injury  may  be  expected,  or  if 
it  is  very  dry  the  crop  will  suffer,  but  not  in  the  same  way.  All 
surfaces,  whether  composed  of  clay  or  sand,  become  dry  by  the 
evaporation  of  water,  and  the  evaporation  not  only  effects  tlie  sur- 
face but  extends  to  a  great  depth  ;  water  seems  to  rise  up  to  the 
surface  from  beneath  to  supply  the  waste.  In  confirmation  of  this 
view  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  saline  matter  upon  the  surface 
in  dry  weather,  which  has  been  in  solution  in  the  water  brought  to 
the  surface  by  this  process.  In  many  places  in  Wake  county,  N^. 
C,  the  naked  soil  in  ditches  is  covered  with  an  incrustation  of  sul- 
phates or  iron  and  alumine,  an  astringent  salt  injurious  to  vegeta- 
tion. This  incrustion  is  formed  only  when  there  is  a  di-outh  ;  if  is 
a  gradual  process.  In  countries  where  a  whole  season  is  dry,  the 
soil  becomes  whitened  with  salts.  Rains  dissolve  them  and  they 
sink  again  into  the  soil,  though  a  portion  will  be  carried  away  by 
water.  An  effect  of  a  drouth  upon  a  clay  soil  is  to  cause  a  shrink- 
age of  the  mass.  It  will  then  become  still  more  difficult  for  roots 
to  penetrate  it,  and  hence,  when  drouth  occurs  early  in  the  season, 
the  crop  is  starved  for  want  of  nutriment,  the  roots  cannot  spread 
through  an  impervious  mass.  But  sand  simply  dries  without  di- 
minishing its  bulk,  but  this  process  takes  place  with  greater  rapidity 
than  upon  clay  soils,  the  latter  being  close  and  more  retentive  of 
moisture  than  the  former. 

§  32.  The  rise  of  water  to  the  surface  from  beneath,  is  familiarly 
illustrated  by  the  putting  of  water  into  the  saucer  of  a  flower  pot; 
its  rise  to  the  surface  is  well  known.     Flower  pots  are  watered  with 


NOKTH-CABOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVEY.  BB 

dommon  rain  water  or  charged  with  fertih'zing  matter  which  is  con- 
veyed to  the  roots.  In  long  continued  drouths  when  the  water 
rises  from  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet,  instead  of  carrying  up  matter  com- 
patible with  the  nature  of  the  plant,  the  astringent  salts  take  their 
place,  injurious  effects  to  vegetation  take  place  in  addition  to  those 
vliich  arise  directly  from  the  want  of  rain.  These  injurious  salts 
are  easily  corrected  by  the  use  of  lime  or  marl.  When  they  reach 
the  neighborhood  of  the  roots  if  lime  is  present,  it  will  decompose 
the  salts  and  form  gypsum.  Fruit  trees  which  send  their  roots 
deeply  into  the  soil  are  often  injured  by  the  presence  of  these  salts. 
From  the  foregoing  facts  it  is  evident  that  the  subsoil  should  be 
examined  for  poisonous  salts,  and  when  the  ditches  or  deep  layers  are 
exposed  in  cuttings  for  roads,  and  should  become  partially  incrusted 
with  astringent  salts,  it  will  be  important  to  institute  means  for 
correcting  this  condition  of  the  deep  subsoil. 

§  33.  The  foregoing  remarks  apply  to  those  varieties  which  are 
purely  clay  or  sand.  Composition  may  modify  results  materially; 
if  for  example  a  soil  whose  composition  retains  a  preponderance  of 
clay  and  yet  has  a  due  admixture  of  organic  matter  and  lime,  its 
ability  to  stand  a  drouth  is  greatly  increased — for  organic  matter 
and  lime  not  only  retain  moisture  stronglj'-,  but  they  affect  the  tex- 
ture favorably,  and  counteract  the  tendency  to  excess  in  shrinkage. 

§  34r.  As  drouths  in  North-Carolina  are  much  more  injurious  than 
excess  of  rain,  it  becomes  a  question  of  importance  to  know  how 
to  guard  against  their  effects.  The  first  point  to  be  attended  to,  is  to 
drain  deeply.  This  will  affect  gradually  the  texture  of  the  clay; 
it  will  become  more  porous,  while  its  natural  affinity  for  water  will 
not  be  diminished  ;  that  is,  it  will  be  sufficiently  retentive  while 
the  excess  of  water  will  be  drained  off.  Clay  may  be  regarded  as 
requiring  a  specific  amount  of  Avater;  but  at  the  same  time  its  ca- 
pacity for  receiving  and  iiolding  a  greater  quantity  than  this,  is 
proved  by  experience.  Another  change  maybe  affected  by  the 
free  use  of  organic  matter,  which,  when  mixed  with  the  soil,  makes 
it  porous.  In  the  cultivation  of  not  only  clay  soils,  but  sandy  ones, 
crops  should  be  planted  as  early  as  possible,  that  the  surface  ma}'" 
be  protected  by  the  shade  of  the  growing  crop.  To  be  able  to 
plant  early,  in  clay  soils  especially,  the  water  must  be  disposed  of 
b}^  drainage.  Two  weeks  may  be  saved  in  many  cases  by  drain- 
age ;  that  is,  the  land  will  admit  of  the  plough  two  weeks  earlier 


34  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

in  drained,  than  in  undrained  lands.  Give  a  crop  of  corn  two 
weeks  more  of  growtli  than  another  piece  eqnall}'^  well  prepared, 
and  the  former  will  live  through  an  ordinary  drouth  without  in- 
jury, while  the  latter  will  not  become  half  a  crop. 

§  35.  Absorption  of  moistui-e  from  the  air  takes  place  principally 
during  the  night,  and  unabsorbative  power  is  less  in  sandy  than 
clayey  soils.  This  respite  from  heat,  which  causes  so  much  evapo- 
ration during  the  day  is  of  the  highest  importance.  Even  when 
dew  does  not  fall,  soils  take  a  small  quantity  of  water  from  the  at- 
mosphere. A  stifi'  clay,  it  is  said,  sometimes  absorbs  one-thirtieth 
part  of  its  own  weight.  .Dry  peat  will  also  absorb  nearly  as  much, 
but  its  power  depends  upon  its  condition;  if  very  tine  it  absorbs 
more  than  clay;  if  coarse,  less.  The  best  condition  of  a  soil  is  with- 
out doubt  a  mixture  of  clay  and  organic  matter,  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  guard  against  droughts. 

§  36.  The  surface  temperature  of  soils  differ  accoi'ding  to  their 
composition.  Water  in  all  soils  favors  a  low  temperature  because 
the  evaporation  carries  oiF  heat  in  the  invisible  vapor  which  rises 
from  the  surface.  So  long  as  an  active  evaporation  goes  on  the 
surface  continues  cold,  lience  in  swamps  and  bogs  where  the  sup- 
ply is  inexhaustible,  very  slight  changes  only  occur  during  the 
summer.  When  the  surface  becomes  drj'-  it  begins  to  rise,  and  if 
the  air  is  only  60°  or  70°  in  the  shade,  the  soil  will  absorb  and  accu- 
mulate heat  and  may  rise  to  90°  or  100°. 

Color  has  much  effect  upon  temperature.  The  darker  the  color, 
all  things  being  equal,  the  greater  is  the  absorbative  power.  The 
correctness  of  the  common  opinion  with  respect  to  the  natural  cold- 
ness of  light  colored  clay  soils  is  correct. 

§  37.  It  is  stated  by  good  authority  that  the  amount  of  evapora- 
tion from  an  acre  of  fresh  ploughed  land  is  equal  to  nine  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  per  hour  for  the  first  and  second  days  after  plowing. 
The  rapid  evaporation  diminishes  every  day.  Evaporation  begins 
again  by  hoeing,  but  the  moist  surface  thus  exposed  has  other  func- 
tions besides  the  evaporative  one.  Moist  surfaces  are  mucli  better 
absorbents  of  ammonia  from  the  atmosphere  than  dry  ones,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  effects  of  stirring  the  soil  often,  arises  from  its  in- 
crease in  absorbative  power.  Water  in  the  soil  is  disposed  of  by 
forest  leaves  or  by  the  vegetable  kingdom.   A  single  tree  8^  inclies  in 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  35 

di'imeter  and  30  feet  high  expired  from  leaves  in  12  hours  333,072 
grains  of  water. 

§  38.  An  acre  of  woodland  evaporates  31,000  pounds  in  12  hours. 
During  the  summer,  embracing  92  days,  the  whole  amount  of 
evaporation  will  amount  to  2,852,000  pounds.  Forests  and  vege- 
tation generally  lai-gely  aid  the  disposal  of  excessive  water  in  the 
spring.  Water  of  course  accumulates  in  the  soil  during  winter. 
Our  wells  receive  their  supply  and  springs  have  their  sources  of 
water  replenished. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  the  removal  of  forests  presents  a  seem- 
ing anomaly,  for  w^here  large  tracts  of  country  are  shorn  of  their 
trees  and  forests,  there  the  head-waters  of  our  rivers  fail  or  dimin- 
ish. Evaporation  is  greatest  from  a  shorn  surface,  and  a  country 
is  on  the  road  to  ruin  when  its  woodlands  are  mostly  destroyed  or 
consigned  to  the  axe. 

But  woodlands  require  a  change.  Rotation  is  as  necessary  to 
the  forest  as  to  the  successive  crops  of  the  farmer.  We  see  tliis 
in  the  death  of  pines  over  large  areas  of  this  State.  The  idea  that 
death  was  caused  wholly  by  insects  is  fallacious.  In  it  we  see,  in 
part  at  least,  a  natural  etfort  to  change  the  kind  of  vegetation. 
Oaks  and  hickory  replace  the  pines.  For  hundreds  of  years  pines 
had  been  the  staple  products  of  large  tracts  in  this  State.  Is  it 
therefore  remarkable  that  a  light  soil  containing  the  true  pabu- 
lum of  life  for  the  pine,  should  have  been  nearly  exhausted  and 
the  pine  should  have  thereby  become  weakened  and  more  liable 
to  disease  than  formerly  ? 

§  39.  The  absolute  weight  of  different  soils  is  also  variable.  A 
cubic  foot  of  clay,  with  its  moisture,  weighs  about  115  pounds. 
The  same  quantity  of  damp  sand  141 ;  while  peat,  with  its  water, 
weighs  only  about  81  pounds.  The  weight  of  soils  affects  the  labor 
of  tillage.  More  foi'ce  is  required  to  lift  a  sandy  soil  than  a  clay. 
But  the  texture  or  compactness  of  an  undrained  clay  soil  more 
than  makes  up  for  its  less  weight. 

In  every  point  of  view  the  farmer  is  encouraged  to  ameliorate 
the  mechanical  condition  of  his  plantation.  The  first  point  requir- 
ing attention  is  its  water  or  drainage,  for  when  a  soil  is  water  soaked, 
good  crops  are  only  to  be  made  in  the  most  favorable  season. 

A  subsoil  of  clay  beneath  sand  is  ameliorated  by  draining,  though 
the   top  may  appear  to  be  sufficiently  dry ;  for  the  clay  may  be 


36  NORTH-CAKOLINA  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

regarded  as  a  reservoir  of  water,  just  as  the  filled  saucer  beneath 
the  flower  pot. 

§  40.  We  may  recognise  in  all  these  facts  two  currents  which 
may  be  found  in  soils ;  a  downward  current,  which  disposes  of 
surface  water,  and  an  upward  current,  when  the  surface  water  has 
become  exhausted.  This  arrangement  is  a  wise  one,  for  if  there 
were  no  upward  currents  plants  would  perish,  both  for  want  of  nu- 
triment and  water  during  drouths.  This  result  would  be  far  more 
likely  to  happen  in  the  case  of  the  cereals  and  cultivated  crops, 
than  in  the  plants  which  grow  naturally  in  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  Y. 


Mechanical  treatment  of  soils.  Deep  plowing.  Advantages  of  draining.  Opeti 
drains.  Plowing.  Objects  attained  by  plowing.  Harrowing.  Roller.  Im- 
provement of  soils  by  mixture.     Hoeing.     Effects  of  hoeing. 

§  41.  No  doubt  the  proper  mechanical  treatment  of  soils  is  the 
most  important  part  of  husbandry  and  farming.  By  mechanical 
treatment  we  mean  plowing,  hoeing,  harrowing,  etc.  If  contrasted 
with  the  ciiemical  tieatment  or  with  the  use  ot  manures,  it  will  be 
evident  that  unless  the  mechanical  treatment  is  right,  much  of  the 
labor  and  expense  of  manuring  will  be  lost.  Probably  there  is  no 
part  of  farming  which  is  executed  so  poorly  in  North-Carolina  as 
the  mechanical  treatment  of  soils.  It  fails  to  be  effective  for  want 
of  depth.  It  is  true,  we  believe,  that  climate  should  be  considered 
when  the  question  of  deep  plowing  is  to  be  answered.  Tiiat  regard 
should  be  had  to  climate  will  appear  from  what  has  been  said  in 
the  foregoing  chapter  with  respect  to  the  evaporation  from  freshly 
plowed  surfaces.  Under  the  more  powerful  influence  of  the  sun's 
rays  in  the  Southern  States,  the  question  may  be  raised  whether 
the  plowing  which  in  New- York  is  called  deep  ■plowing^  from  12  to 
14  inches  deep,  might  not  result  in  two  great  a  loss  of  water.  But 
whether  this  question  is  answered  in  the  affirmative  or  not,  it  will 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURYEY.  37 

be  found  true  that  deeper  plowing  than  is  usually  practiced  will  be 
attended  witli  greater  success. 

Pi'eparatory  to  plowing  stands  draining j  not  always,  but  fre- 
quently. An  important  questio)i  to  be  answered  is  whetlier  any 
given  tract  requires  this  preliminary  treatment.  Observation  may 
readily  return  the  reply.  If  water  stands  upon  the  surtace  only  a 
few  hours  after  a  rain,  it  is  probable  draining  will  benefit  the  tract 
where  it  stands.  If  a  bed  of  clay  lies  near  the  surface  it  is  called 
for  even  if  the  top  is  sand.  All  swamps  and  bogs  of  course  require 
it.  In  all  the  eastern  counties  there  is  a  continuous  bed  of  imper- 
vious brick  clay,  which  often  is  not  less  than  one  foot  from  the 
surface,  and  its  materials  are  often  blended  with  the  sand  where  it 
lies  deper.  This  yellowish  white  clay  will  frequently  be  found 
cropping  out  in  ravines  where  its  position  may  be  determined,  and 
having  determined  its  position,  it  will  aid  in  solving  the  question 
of  drainage.  This  bed  of  clay  varies  from  four  to  seven  feet 
thick,  and  is  overlaid,  and  also  underlaid  with  sand.  These  sand 
beds  vary  in  thickness,  and  are  always  above  the  marls,  unless  we 
reckon  among  marls  the  recent  shell  bed  of  the  coast.  In  drain- 
age it  is  unnecessary  to  cut  through  the  brick  clay;  it  is  sufficient 
to  cut  deeply  into  it,  though  the  drainage  will  be  more  perfect  if 
it  is  cut  through.  Another  indication  of  the  necessity  of  special 
drainage  is  furnished  where  springs  issue  near  the  surface.  Tliese 
are  always  thrown  out  by  an  impervious  stratum.  This  impervious 
stratum  may  be  sought  for  in  ravines,  or  by  boring  with  an  auger 
of  a  suitable  length ;  its  depth  beneath  the  surface  may  thereby 
be  determined. 

§  42.  Sandy  clays  which  are  sufficiently  cohesive  to  be  formed 
into  balls  by  the  hand  when  moistened,  will  require  drainage.  In 
drainage  we  not  only  have  regard  to  surfa<3e  water,  to  draw  that 
off,  but  we  must  cut  inio  the  impervious  stratum  sufficiently  deep 
to  take  out  the  water  confined  in  its  upper  layers  or  beds.  Other- 
wise the  soil  will  rest  on  a  bed  always  saturated  with  water,  and 
always  giving  it  off  from  the  surface  in  vapor,  and  hence,  will 
maintain  a  surface  too  cool  for  the  growth  of  cotton  or  corn. 

Another  fact  should  be  thought  of  and  considered.  Old  soils 
become  more  compact  and  clayey  by  cultivation ,'  and  though  in 
its  new  state  crops  were  sure  and  certain,  yet,  in  process  of  time, 
a  change  takes  place.    The  greatest  change  is  in  the  subsoil,  which 


38  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURViCY. 

becomes  partially  consolidated  by  the  infiltration  of  the  oxide  of 
iron  and  carbonate  of  lime.  Free  percolation  is  stopped,  and  this 
partially  indurated  stratum  should  be  cut  through  to  restore  a  free 
passage  of  water.  Breaking  it  up  with  a  subsoil  plow  is  not  suf- 
ficient with  many  persons;  this  pan,  as  it  is  called,  must  not  be^ 
cut.  Experience,  however,  justifies  it,  and  no  harm  ever  follows 
fj-om  the  practice. 

§  43.  Drainage  has  been  spoken  of  and  recommended  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  but  one  or  two  advantages  should  be  more  dis- 
tinctly stated.  It  is  the  openness  which  follows,  and  by  which  air 
penetrates  freely  the  strata.  The  advantages,  or  it  should  be  said 
the  necessity  for  oxygen  in  the  soil,  is  absolute,  especially  where 
orotmic  matter  exists,  for  we  have  shown  that  oxygen  must  change 
the  vegetable  fibre  into  humates,  geates,  and  crenic  and  apocrenio 
acids,  etc.  All  these  changes  are  accompanied  with  the  disengage- 
.ment  too  of  carbonic  acid.  If  the  vegetable  fibre  is  confined  in 
wet  soils,  it  is  converted  into  a  peat  only,  in  which  state  it  is  not 
fitted  for  vegetable  assimilation.  But  in  soils  air  must  circulate; 
and  when  it  is  too  close  and  compact,  circulation  can  be  effected 
only  by  drainage. 

From  the  foregoing,  it  is  plain  drainage  effects  two  objects : 

§  44.  1-  It  raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil  b}^  sending  the 
water  in  subterranean  channels  to  distant  parts.  2,  It  opens  the 
texture  of  soil  and  permits  the  free  passage  of  atmospheric  air. 
Both  the  mechanical  and  chemical  wants  of  vegetation  are  provi- 
ded for  by  drainage.  Among  the  advantages  of  draining  one  has 
already  been  fully  stated  ;  but  still,  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  by 
it  seed  time  comes  earlier,  where  soil  is  drained,  and  it  may  and  will 
happen  that  to  an  earlier  planting  a  good  crop  is  mainly  due.  A 
result  of  this  kind,  together  with  a  larger  crop  for  one  or  two  sea- 
sons, will  more  than  pay  the  expenditure  incurred  in  the  operation. 

But  when  a  general  system  of  drainage  for  the  country  has  been 
carried  out,  the  general  health  of  all  its  citizens  will  be  secured. 
Stagnant  pools  will  not  exist;  the  water  of  wells  will  be  improved 
and  the  climate  will  be  measurably  changed.  Nothing  can  be 
Inore  important  than  the  sanitary  effects  of  good  drainage.  The 
great  source  of  intermittent  fever  is  in  stagnant  waters.  It  is  true 
we  cannot  prevent  the  freshets  which  give  origin  to  miasmata,  but 


NORTH-CAROLINA    GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY.  39 

even  hero,  drainage  wall  have  a  sahitary  influence  by  canying  off 
at  an  earlier  day  the  surphis  waters. 

The  volume  of  this  water  is  replaced  by  air.  Hence  it  is  plain 
that  a  very  important  change  must  necessarily  take  place.  "While 
soa'ced  with  water,  which  contains  but  little  air,  no  chemical 
changes  take  place  which  produce  fertilizing  matter.  The  changes 
are  preparatory  only,  but  the  peaty  matter  or  peat  itself,  will  re- 
main peat,  or  become  real  coal  forever.  But  draw  off  the  water 
and  replace  it  by  atmospheric  air  w^ith  its  active  principle,  oxygen^ 
and  a  new  order  of  things  begins. 

§  45.  Drainage  is  not  neglected  in  North-Carolina,  but  its  sys- 
tem is  defective.  Open  drains  are  usually  made;  they  effect  the 
object  less  perfectly  than  tile  drainimg  when  properly  laid  down. 
The  former  are  obstructed  b}"  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  the  banks 
are  in  part  closed  to  the  free  exit  of  water.  They  are  also  incon- 
venient, and  hence,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  tile  wnlf  be  used.  These  remarks,  however,  are  applicable 
to  the  uplands,  the  swamps  must  be  drained  by  open  ditches  and 
canals. 

§  4:6.  The  operation  next  in  importance  to  drainage  \%  'plowing. 
By  the  plow  tlie  surface  is  designed  to  be  pulverized,  should  be 
pulverized,  or  else  the  operation  is  badly  performed.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  surface  must  be  right,  or  else  it  will  be  impef feet,  how- 
ever skilful  the  holder  of  the  plow  may  be.  If  wet,  it  should  not 
be  undertaken.  This  is  a  settled  and  well  known  point,  but  it  is 
not  always  observed,  for  a  large  amount  of  pressing  w^ork  in  the 
spring  may  in  one  sense  compel  a  farmer  to  plow  before  the  soil  is 
dried.  Plowing  is  an  old  custom,  and  the  experience  of  the  world 
says  that  nations  have  prospered  and  communities  prospered  in  the 
direct  ratio  that  this  operation  approaches  perfection.  We  throw 
out  of  mind  all  that  is  done  in  a  new  soil  full  of  roots  and  stumps. 
Great  crops  of  corn  have  been  raised  where  the  plow  could  not 
run.  But  every  old  country  where  roots,  stumps  and  briars  have 
been  disposed  of  and  the  soil  has  found  its  level,  there  the  plow 
must  run.  The  importance  of  plowing  is  felt  everywhere,  is  shown 
by  the  inventions  of  mechanics  and  farmers  to  perfect  the  machine 
and  make  an  instrument  which  is  adapted  to  all  surfaces  and  depths 
to  which  the  machine  may  be  driven  by  cattle  and  the  hand  of 
man.     The  evil  arising  from  plowing  wet  land  is  the  lumpy  condi- 


>M)  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

tion  of  the  furrow  mass,  and  as  these  dry  they  become  really  indu- 
rated in  the  sun,  and  the  consequence  frequently  is,  that  such  a 
condition  of  the  soil  remains  for  one  or  two  years. 

Another  important  principle  differing  in  kind  from  the  foregoing 
is,  that  furrows  should  not  run  down  hill ;  they  should  encircle  the 
knowl  or  hill-side  in  order  to  divert  streams  from  a  direct  descent, 
and  thereby  cut  a  side-hill  ditch  and  finally  lead  to  the  formation 
of  unseemly  gullies.  These,  however,  are  not  only  unseemly,  but 
monstrous  evils,  and  especial  care  needs  be  taken  in  working  the 
soils  overlying  the  free-stones  of  this  State.  The  first  thing  to  be 
effected  in  plowing  is  good  pulverization,  the  next  is  to  open  the 
soil  to  a  sufficient  depth  for  the  roots  to  spread  themselves,  and  an 
indirect  benefit  is  secured  when  these  two  ends  are  accomplished, 
that  of  helping  a  crop  through  a  drought  without  inj^uy.  The 
reader  will  understand  the  mode  in  which  this  comes  to  pass  by 
applying  the  principles  already  stated. 

Washing  and  the  formation  of  gullies  is  also  prevented  in  part 
by  deep  plowing.  The  subsoil  plow  is  called  into  requisition  to 
deepen  furrows,  but  not  to  bring  the  broken  substance  to  the  sur- 
face. By  deep  ploMnng,  especially  if  aided  by  the  subsoil  plow, 
the  soil  will  absorb  double  the  quantity  of  rain,  and  hence,  di- 
minish the  amount  which  would  otherwise  escape  in  streams  over 
the  surface,  and  thereby  carry  off  good  soil,  and  tend  to  the  for- 
mation of  gullies. 

Pulverization,  an  open,  porous  condition  for  roots  to  penetrate, 
depth  for  absorption  of  rain,  together  with  a  perfect  mixture  of  the 
matters  of  the  soil  and  fertilizers,  are  objects  to  be  attained  by 
plowing.     These  are  all  to  be  kept  in  view. 

§  47.  The  harrow  and  bush  become  necessary  to  break  the  lumps 
and  form  an  even  surface  for  the  reception  of  seed. 

The  whole  operation  of  seeding  and  providing  for  the  germina- 
tion of  seed  is  completed  by  a  heavy  roller.  This  acts  super- 
ficially, but  fewer  seed  are  lost  by  its  employment,  especially  small 
seeds.  Let  a  person  step  upon  a  celery  bed  and  he  will  find  that 
double  the  number  of  plants  come  up  where  the  soil  is  pressed, 
than  where  its  surface  remains  loose.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
the  roller  is  not  more  frequently  employed.  It  crushes  clods  which 
have  escaped  the  harrow,  and  makes  withal  an  even  surface. 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOaiCAL   SURVEY.  '^ 

§  48,  The  mechanical  condition  of  a  soil  can  rarely  be  amelio- 
rated by  mixture.  Those  which  really  require  mixture  are  stiff 
clays  and  loose  sands.  If  a  mixture  can  be  effected  by  the  plow,  it 
will  no  doubt  pay.  But  it  becomes  quite  questionable,  whether  a 
farmer  can  haul  sand  to  mix  with  the  clay,  or  clay  to  mix  with  the 
sand.  The  cost  of  hauling  is  too  great.  A  gardner  may  make  the 
necessary  mixture.  At  any  rate,  before  a  farmer  attempts  to 
change  a  field  of  ten  acres  by  mixing  clay  with  sand,  or  the  re- 
verse, he  had  better  count  the  cost  beforehand.  Now  although  a 
barren  sand  will  not  probably  be  benefitted  by  draining,  yet  the 
texture  of  the  stiffest  clays  will  be ;  and  as  clays  are  mixtures  of 
silex  and  alumine,  and  as  they  are  often,  if  not  generally  supplied 
with  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  the  most  direct  as  well  as  the 
cheapest  mode  to  cure  a  clay  of  its  stiffness,  will  be  to  remove  the 
water  by  under  drainage. 

As  it  regards  sand,  it  will  be  cheaper  to  employ  calcareous  fer- 
tilizers with  forms  of  muck  than  to  mix  with  it  clay. 

The  theory  of  amendment  by  mixture  is  perfectly  satisfactory; 
but  in  practice,  it  will  be  found  a  losing  business,  where  either 
material  has  to  be  carted  many  rods. 

§  49.  To  recur  once  more  to  the  subsoil  plow  in  connexion  with 
the  clays  too  stiff  to  cultivate ;  it  has  been  stated,  that  the  subsoil 
plow  should  not  be  used  until  the  land  has  been  well  drained. 
When  considerable  moisture  exists  in  the  clay,  it  unites  and  be- 
comes solid  and  impervious,  so  that  little  benefit  has  been  expe- 
rienced in  certain  cases  from  subsoiling ;  but  when  the  water  has 
been  drained  off  and  the  clays  have  become  loose  and  porous,  the 
masses  raised  by  the  plow  still  remain  in  this  condition,  or  become 
still  more  porous,  so  that  the  beneficial  effects  of  subsoiling  a  stiff 
under  clay  will  not  be  secured  till  after  the  land  has  been  well 
drained. 

§  50.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  speak  of  hoeing  or  the  use  of  the 
cultivator.  They  are  needful  operations  and  no  one  omits  them ; 
but  why  lioe?  is  it  simply  to  kill  weeds?  Hoeing  kills  weeds  and 
pulverizes  the  soil,  but  it  has  an  effect  which  is  unseen  except  from 
its  effects  which  are  liable  to  be  misinterpreted.  The  good  efiects 
of  hoeing  arise  from  the  moist  surface  created,  and  which  absorbs 
ammonia.  That  the  beneficial  effects  do  not  all  arise  from  the  de- 
struction of  weeds  and  pulverization  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
3 


42  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

the  more  frequently  the  surface  is  stirred  and  a  moist  surface  ex- 
posed, the  more  vigorous  the  growth  of  the  crop.  The  properties 
of  ammonia  remove  all  doubts  respecting  the  effects  of  hoeing.  Let 
the  vapor  of  hartshorn  in  a  receiver  or  tumbler  be  placed  over  a  ves- 
sel of  quicksilver,  and  then  inti'oduce  a  mass  of  moist  soil,  and  see 
with  how  much  rapidity  the  whole  of  the  ammonia  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  moist  soil.  Ammonia  always  exists  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
it  is  obtained  in  dry  weather  by  exposing  a  fresh  surface  of  soil  to 
the  atmosphere.  Hoeing  is  a  cheaper  way  of  obtaining  ammonia 
than  buying  it  in  guano;  we  get  it  in  dry  weather,  and  it  is  agree- 
able to  the  experience  of  all  good  observers,  that  hoeing  in  dry 
weather  is  followed  with  greater  benefits  than  il  the  weather  is  wet. 
Gardens  are  hoed  more  frequently  than  field  crops,  though  it  may 
be  supposed  that  the  vigorous  growth  in  the  former  is  due  to  a  rich 
soil.  Still,  the  good  efi'eets  of  hoeing  are  too  demonstrable  to  the 
eye  to  admit  of  doubt.  Hoeing,  however,  is  }aboriG.us,  and  too- 
much  time  is  consumed  to  admit  of  its  repetition  in  field  crops. 
To  supply  the  place  of  the  hoe  the  cultivator  ce^mes  in,  and  no- 
doubt  its  more  frequent  employment  in  dry  weather,  not  simply  tc> 
kill  weeds  and  break  sods,  but  to  create  a  moist  surface  which  will 
absorb  ammonia,  and  which  is  now  known  to  be  so  needful  to  all 
crops.  Dry  surface  has  little  or  no  absorbative  power  as  may  be 
shown  by  introducing  a  ball  of  dry  earth  inta  a  tumbler,  or  receiver 
of  hartshorn  in  vapor. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


Soil  elements  preserve  the  proportions  very  nearly  as  they  exist  in  the  parent 
rock.  Weight  of  different  kinds  of  soils.  Most  important  elements  of  soil  rep- 
resented by  fractions.  Effects  of  small  doses  of  fertilizer  explained.  Nature 
deals  out  her  nutriment  in  atom  doses^  and  so  does  the  successful  florist. 

§  51.  It  is  well  established  by  experiment  and-  observation,  that 
the  soil  contains,  in  its  ordinary  state,  all  the  elements  the  vegeta- 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVET.  43 

ble  kini;dom  needs.  It  is  also  known  that  all  may  be,  and  are 
probably  derived  from  the  solid  rocks  of  the  globe;  and  hence  it 
will  follow  that  the  composition  of  the  soil  will  not  diifer  materially 
from  the  parent  rock  from  which  it  is  derived;  and  what  is  partic- 
ularly worthy  of  note  is,  that  the  proportions  of  the  elements  will 
be  found  in  the  soil  as  they  exist  in  the  rock;  and  that  where  an 
element  or  compound  is  in  excess  in  the  rock,  so  it  will  be  found  in 
the  soil,  and  where  the  proportion  is  small  in  the  rock  so  it  will 
necessarily  be  small  in  the  soil.  We  propose  in  this  chapter  to 
state  the  quantities  of  elements  in  soils,  and  it  will  appear  that 
though  many  important  substances  are  extremely  minute  when  put 
in  a  table  of  the  common  form  used  in  chemical  analysis ;  yet,  if 
calculated  therefrom  in  absolute  quantities  per  acre,  they  are  very 
large. 

We  have  given  the  weight  of  cubic  feet  of  sandy,  clayey  and 
peaty  soils ;  these  data  will  give  the  weight  of  a  layer  of  soil  of  the 
area  of  an  acre  and  one  foot  deep.  A  granite  soil  with  its  usual 
state  of  moisture  weighs  about  90  lbs  to  the  square  foot,  and  the 
superficial  square  feet  of  an  acre  weighs  3,920,,000  pounds.  If 
granite  is  composed  of  two-fifths  quartz,  two-fifths  felspar  and  one- 
fifth  mica,  its  composition  will  be  represented  by  the  following  i 

Silex,    74.84 

Alumina, .12.8a 

Potash, 7.48 

Magnesia,    99' 

Lime, .3T 

Oxide  of  iron,    1.93; 

Oxide  of  manganese,    ... .       .12 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  and  all  other  analyses  of  rocks  and 
soils,  that  silex  and  alumina  constitute  by  far  the  largest  parts, 
while  those  elements  which  seem  the  most  important  to  the  veget- 
able occur,  or  are  represented  by  fractions^  and  generally  the  frac- 
tions are  much  less  than  in  the  case  seleeteiJ.  The  potash  given  is  the 
potash  of  the  rock,  and  thus  never  occurs  in  the  soil,  and  the  frac- 
tion which  should  represent  the  potash  of  a  granite  soil  will  not  ex- 
ceed one-half  of  one  per  cent,  in  consequence  of  its  solubility.  But 
if  it  equals  the  lime,  .S'T,  the  amount  of  potash  in  one  hundred 
pounds  of  soil  will  be  three-eighths  of  a  pound.     If  the  per  centage 


u 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SUEVET. 


amounts  to  one-half  of  one  per  cent.,  there  will  be  over  twenty- 
tons  of  the  substance  in  the  mass  of  soil,  one  foot  thick  and  within 
the  area  of  an  acre.  The  small  per  centages,  therefore,  in  an 
analysis,  when  calculated  for  a  field,  become  large  and  important 
figures ;  and  even  where  the  Chemist  makes  his  note  as  a  trace, 
and  which  indicates  its  presence,  without  being  able  to  weigh  the 
element,  it  is  still  sufficient  to  meet  the  wants  of  vegetation.  It  is 
still  greater  than  the  farmer  employs  even  when  he  uses  gypsum, 
and  much  greater  than  when  guano  is  employed.  The  interesting 
question  then  comes  up,  how  can  the  great  eflfects  of  guano  be  re- 
conciled with  the  small  quantity  used?  Two  hundred  pounds  of 
guano  to  an  acre,  sown  broadcast  upon  a  wheat  field,  produces 
visible  effects  as  far  as  the  field  can  be  seen  when  growing,  and  is 
known  to  double  the  ci'op.  How  can  the  great  efi'ects,  then,  be 
accounted  for  when  the  quantity  is  so  small  that  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  detect  it  in  a  pound  of  soil  ? 

We  may  conceive  it  to  be  explained  in  this  way  :  It  is  all  dis- 
solved and  evenly  distributed  in  the  mass  of  soil,  and  is  brought 
directly  to  the  roots  of  the  growing  plant  in  the  right  condition  to 
be  taken  up.  It  is  not  the  absolute  quantity  called  for  by  the  crop, 
it  is  the  state  or  condition  of  solution.  Supposing  four  times  as  much 
used,  and  hence  the  solution  would  be  four  times  as  strong,  would  it 
produce  quadruple  effects  ?  certainly  not.  Experience  does  not 
sanction  the  doctrine ;  instead  of  good  effects,  the  crop  would  be 
hurt,  or  if  taken  up  by  the  rootlets  at  all,  it  is  too  strong,  and  the 
probability  is  that  much  would  not  be  taken  up,  as  the  strength  or 
suspended  particles  of  nutriment  could  not  be  received  into  the 
vegetable  tissues  at  all. 

We  account  then  for  the  striking  efforts  of  apparently  homeo- 
pathic doses  of  fertilizers,  on  the  ground  of  their  solutions  being 
adapted  to  the  mouths  of  the  spongioles  through  which  the  nutri- 
ment must  enter  the  vegetable  organism,  and  the  adaptation  in 
this  state  to  the  constitution  of  vegetables.  All  concentrated  doses 
are  rejected.  All  floriculturalists  who  produce  beautiful  flowers, 
employ  agents  extremely  diluted.  Others,  who  do  not  understand 
the  business  of  feeding  beautiful  plants,  attempt  to  cram  them 
with  too  much  and  too  rich  solutions ;  the  consequence  is,  the 
plants  are  killed  outright,  or  else  become  yellow,  their  leaves  drop, 
.the  whole  plant  indicates  sufi'ering. 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY.  45 

It  is  liiglilj  probable  too,  that  a  farmer  might  produce  results  as 
beautiful  as  the  florist,  by  pursuing  like  means ;  applying  his  fer- 
tilizers in  a  state  of  extreme  dilution,  in  which  case  it  is  evenly 
distributed  to  roots  and  in  a  state  in  which  it  can  be  taken  up. 
Facts  constantly  occurring  in  the  analysis  of  soils,  favor,  and  even 
sustain  the  doctrine.  For  how  much  soluble  matter  is  there  in 
one  thousand  grains  of  soil  ?  It  is  possible  to  obtain  one  and  one 
and  a  half  per  cent,  consisting  of  12  to  14  substances.  ^Nature 
seems  to  dole  out  lier  treasures;  instead  of  dealing  liberally  as  be- 
fitting her,  she  gives  atoms.  There  are  practical  principles  in  the 
facts  developed.  If  soluble  substances  are  employed,  they  too 
must  be  dealt  out  in  atoms  only.  A  few  atoms  at  a  time  only  are 
found  in  solution  in  the  soil.  The  vegetable  organism  is  only  fitted 
to  receive  atoms;  and  in  this  we  see  adaptations  which  must  bt 
repeated.  It  is  true,  turkeys,  swine  and  men  may  be  crammed 
and  fattened ;  but  this  system  will  not  succeed  in  raising  wheat, 
cotton  or  corn. 


CHAPTER  YII. 


Fertilizers  defined.  Their  necessity.  Mechanical  means  of  improvements  of  soil. 
Effects  of  \ime.  Growth  is  the  result  of  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  fer- 
tilizers employed.  Organs  have  each  their  own  special  influence  upon  the 
fertilizing  matter  they  receive.  Provisions  for  sustaining  vegetable  life.  A 
system  of  adaptive  husbandry.  Instances  cited.  Adaptation  of  a  crop  to  the 
soil.  What  fertilizers  will  ripen  a  crop  at  the  right  time.  The  source  of  fer- 
tilizers. Green  crops.  Peat.  Advantages  of  a  green  crop.  Marine  plants. 
Straw.  Losses  of  farm  yard  manure.  Peat,  how  prepared  for  use.  Composts. 
Fertilizers  of  animal  origin.     Solids  and  fluids. 

§  52.  A  Fertilizer  is  a  substance  which  promotes  tlie  growth  of 
vegetables.  In  this  definition  is  included  water,  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  bodies  which  would  scarcely  be  ranked  under  the  name  of 
manures.  The  latter  term  is  generally  applied  to  the  excrements 
of  animals,  and  yet,  it  has  a  wide  signification,  so  that  when  we 


46  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

have  really  determined  the  number  of  bodies  which  may  be  clas- 
sified under  it,  we  find  that  its  meaning  is  as  extensive  as  that  of 
fertilizer. 

§  53.  The  necessity  which  has  given  rise  to  the  use  of  this  class 
of  bodies,  is  the  excessive  taxation  of  the  natural  resources  of  soil 
for  the  support  of  much  greater  crops  than  the  soil  would  sponta- 
neously produce,  and  this  taxation  being  prolonged  century  in,  and 
century  out,  the  necessity  now  for  resorting  to  their  use  and  here- 
after, has  become  a  fixed  institution,  established  in  absolute  do- 
minion upon  the  money  and  labor  of  all  who  have  anything  to  do 
in  agriculture  in  earnest.  The  improvement  of  the  soil  by  me- 
chanical means  extends  farther  than  the  simple  movement  of  it  in 
a  certain  way,  turning  it  over  with  the  plow,  breaking  up  the 
compact  matter  at  the  bottom  of  a  furrow,  exposing  fresh  surfaces 
with  the  hoe  or  cultivator ;  for  in  all  these  there  are  excited  chem- 
ical actions,  whereby  combinations  promoting  growth  take  place. 
So  also  the  employment  of  chemical  bodies  do  not  end  strictly  in 
chemical  changes;  mechanical  ones  result  from  chemical  actions. 
Witness  the  efi'ect  of  quick  lime  upon  a  clay  soil;  it  becomes 
porous  and  light,  even  more  so  than  by  the  use  of  the  plow  and 
hoe ;  besides,  it  is  d^ permanent  change  in  texture  as  well  as  com- 
position. From  the  foregoing  facts,  it  will  be  seen  how  one  system 
of  improvement  connects  itself  with  another,  and  that  the  institu- 
tion of  one  system  of  means  sets  in  motion  those  which  seemingly 
belong  to  an  opposite  kind.  We  repeat  that  mechanical  agencies 
result  in  chemical,  and  chemical  ones  result  also  in  mechanical. 
All  means,  therefore,  for  improving  the  soil  belong  to  double 
systems,  excepting  those  instances  where  a  fertilizer  is  selected 
with  reference  to  a  single  result,  as  is  often  the  case  in  most  of  the 
8oils ;  as  in  sulphate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  potash,  or  phosphate 
of  lime. 

But  still,  fertilizers  im]  trove  soils  by  chemical  agencies,  and  we 
shall  now  consider  them  in  this  range  of  their  functions,  leaving 
out  of  view  any  mechanical  results  they  may  produce. 

§  54.  All  applications  of  substances  designed  to  promote  growth 
do  not  always  act  by  the  results  of  change  in  themselves,  nor  by 
inducing  chemical  changes  in  others  prior  to  their  introduclion  into 
the  organism  of  the  plant.  But  by  far  the  greater  number  of  fer- 
tilizers undergo  a  change  somewhere  before  they  are  assimilated, 


NOKTH-CAJtOLINA   aEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  47 

■or  become  ineoi*porated  into  the  vegetable  body.  We  cannot  think 
-of  any  thing,  how  much  ahke  it  seems  to  the  constitution  of  organ- 
lEed  matt-er,  which  mnst  not  be  changed  in  its  chemical  constitu- 
tion before  it  finds  its  destined  position  in  the  vegetable  structure. 
Water,  it  is  true,  acting  as  the  vehicle  by  which  food  is  conveyed 
inward,  passes  through  and  out  again  by  respiratory  pores  and  un- 
dergoes no  change;  but,  what  it  transmits,  must  be  changed.  The 
actions  of  organs  have  much  that  is  special ;  each  organ  its  own 
wants,  and  its  own  apparatus  to  supply  them.  The  husk  of  a  ker- 
stel  of  grain  demands  its  supply,  and  though  it  gets  a  supply  from 
the  comraoe  circulating  store,  yet  its  organiEation  elaborates  from 
that  supply,  something  quite  different  from  that  of  the  kernel,  leaf 
or  stalk.  The  ehaisges  indicated  are  regarded  as  chemical,  with 
what,  aad  how  much  right,  we  cannot  decide.  There  is  a  vitality 
in  each  and  ever}'^  part  and  organ;  how  much  is  to  be  attributed 
to  this  principle  has  never  been  agreed  upon;  but  it  is  supposed 
by  some  that  this  principle  is  a  force  or  powea* controlling  the  move- 
ments in  questioa;  yet,  the  changes  in  the  substance  are  like  unto 
chemical  products  taking  place  independentl}'^  of  this  subtle  force 
called  mtal.  But  the  foregoing  is  a  departure  frona  the  track  or 
iine  in  which  we  designed  to  move. 

§  55,  But  before  we  speak  of  th«  f&rtilizers  we  may  profitably 
look  at  or  consider  the  natural  provisions  for  sustaining  vegetable 
life  when  left  to  the  workings  of  its  own  unaided  machineiy.  The 
machinery  consists  of  organs  for  support  and  reception,  discharge 
and  growth.  The  first  are  the  roots,  which  consist  of  a  tapering 
stem  which  sends  off  threads  terminating  in  a  congeries  of  exceed- 
ingly minute  orifices,  which  are  called  spongiolea^  whose  office  is  to 
obtain,  and  we  might  perhaps  say,  select  nutriment.  The  second 
class  of  organs  are  the  leaves.  They  exhale  water,  in  vapor  of 
course,  from  pores  which  are  mainly  located  upon  the  under  side. 
The  water  is  pure,  though  it  has  been  the  carriei"  of  food,  as  it  is 
called,  from  which  has  been  manufactured  salts,  sugar,  starch,  ex- 
tract, gum,  woody  fibre,  etc.  The  superfluous  water  escapes  from 
the  surface  of  leaves.  But  leaves,  besides  performing  the  office  of 
exhalation,  perform  that  of  reception,  or  of  absorption.  Tl^is 
office,  however,  appears  to  be  an  important  one  in  the  clover  and 
allied  plants;  while  in  the  cereals,  it  is  much  less  so.  The  move- 
ment of  water  (and  when  impregnated  with  foreign  matter,  is 


48  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVEY. 

called  sap,)  is  upward  and  outward,  so  as  to  distribute  it  to  the  new 
growing  organs.  It  passes  into  cells  in  its  upward  progress,  where 
it  is  changed  or  assimilated,  and  becomes  by  its  passage  through 
them,  pei'haps  by  the  action  of  its  walls,  vegetalised,  if  we  may 
coin  a  word  answering  to  animalised.  There  is  motion  in  all  di- 
rections, but  the  currents  tend  upward  and  outward,  so  as  to  reach 
the  extreme  bud  and  leaf.  This  is  a  necessary  result,  because  the 
bud,  leaf,  and  extreme  of  the  branches  seem  to  be  the  source  of 
the  force  by  which  circulation  is  carried  on.  In  the  workings  of 
this  imperfectly  described  machinery,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  a  tree,  we  find  organs  which  are  but  temporary  in 
their  office,  and  which  therefore  require  periodical  renewals. 
These  are  the  leaves,  fruit  and  bark.  The  permanent  organs  are 
the  trunk  with  its  limbs,  and  the  roots.  The  growth  is  both  aerial 
and  sub-terrestial.  The  latter  keeps  pace  with  .the  former;  the 
roots  spread  equally  with  the  branches,  and  that  the  roots  may  be 
fed  they  penetrate  outwardly  into  new  feeding  grounds,  Mhich  like 
the  leaves,  bark  and  fruit  in-  falling  after  decay,  help  supply  the 
necessary  nutriment.  They  re-supply  in  part,  and  once  again  tra- 
verse the  organism.  '■■ 

§  56.  Time,  also,  is  not  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  range  of  enqui- 
ries relative  to  fertilizers.  It  may  be,  and  is,  of  great  importance 
to  get  an  early  and  good  stand  ;  the  result  of  the  crop  may  turn 
upon  this  one  point.  Hence,  what  treatment,  what  fertilizer  will 
best  fulfil  the  end  sought ;  for  instance,  in  a  crop  of  tobacco  or  cot- 
ton ?  What  is  wanted  is  an  early,  or  indeed  an  immediate  effect; 
one  which  will  not  retard  the  germination  of  the  seed,  but  which 
will  act  gently  upon  the  infant  plant.  The  dose,  too,  is  an  impor- 
tant consideration ;  a  tea-spoonful  of  broth  is  not  too  much  for  the 
infant,  while  a  table-spoonful,  which  an  adult  stomach  would  man- 
age, would  be  too  much  for  the  former. 

There  is  another  enquiry  in  range  of  the  specialities  we  are  con- 
sidering. What  fertilizer  will  ripen  a  crop  at  the  best  time  and 
manner?  This  may  not  have  been  thought  of  so  frequently  as 
sojjfie  other  questions ;  but  the  tobacco  grower's  attention  has  been 
turned  to  it.  This  crop  must  ripen  evenly  before  frost;  and  as  it 
is  a  leaf  ripening,  not  a  seed,  an  organ  which  has  no  connexion 
with  the  organs  by  which  the  plant  is  propagated,  but  is  supplied 
\  cellular  tissue,  which  may  grow  and  develope  itself  indefinitely, 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  49 

■  > 

and  which,  under  the  influence  of  abundance  of  nutriment,  will 
keep  green  ;  this  organ,  the  leaf,  may  not  ripen  at  the  right  time, 
and  may  ripen  quite  irregularly  and  the  crop  be  half  spoiled.  The 
problem,  then,  for  the  tobacco  grower  to  solve,  is,  what  fertilizer 
will  spend  its  powers  and  exert  its  properties  to  the  best  advantage 
in  order  that  the  leaf  sliall  not  grow  too  large,  but  expend  or 
exhaust  its  power  before  frost,  and  thereby  promote  its  ripening  at 
the  right  time  ;  for,  as  long  as  the  leaf  is  encouraged  to  grow  by  the 
fertilizer  employed,  it  will  not  stop  to  ripen.  The  leaf  is  under  a 
different  law  from  the  organs  which  propagate  the  species,  though 
even  these  may  not  put  forth  their  powers  when  the  woody  system 
is  over  stimulated  with  nutriment. 

A  system  of  husbandry  Avhich  is  now  called  for  \%  adaptive,  or  to 
use  another  term  of  like  import,  should  be  as  far  as  possible  special; 
by  which  we  mean,  the  use  of  those  means  of  improvement  which 
are  adapted  to  the  soil  crop.  -  It  is  now  proved  by  experiment,  that 
phosphatic  fertilizers  are  better  adapted  to  the  growth  of  turnips 
than  ammoniacal  ones,  and  that  a  combination  of  ammoniacal  and 
phosphatic  are  best  suited  to  wheat.  These  are  instances  of  adap- 
tive husbandry,  IIow  many  such  instances  will  be  established 
by  experiment  and  observation  we  cannot  tell.  But  their  discovery 
is  in  the  right  direction  ;  it  is  a  progression  towards  perfection.  So 
also  as  to  the  mode  of  application  ;  abundant  experience  and  obser- 
vation }  oint  to  the  fact,  that  surface  application  is  the  true  mode  for 
grass  lands.  But  it  may  not  be  the  best  for  corn  lands ;  it  may  not 
supercede  a  more  immediate  application  of  certain  fertilizers  to  the 
hill  of  corn. 

So  again,  the  adaptation  of  a  crop  to  the  soil  and  to  the  condition 
of  any  particular  kind,  is  an  established  principle.  Clayey  lands 
are  better  for  wheat  than  sandy,  and  sandy  soils  grow  rye  better 
than  they  do  wheat.  But  observations  in  this  direction  are  older 
than  those  which  are  established  relative  to  the  special  use  of  fer- 
tilizers. The  enquiry  is  and  has  been  in  the  mind  of  every  farmer, 
what  is  this  piece  of  land  adapted  to?  What  kind  of  crop  will  be 
the  most  profitable?  and  the  consequence  of  this  kind  of  enquiry 
lias  been  to  establish  many  important  practical  results  which  are 
now  acted  upon  every  day  by  our  best  farmers.  This  field  of  im- 
provement comes  first  in  the  order  of  time ;  and  from  the  nature 


50  NOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVEY. 

of  things,  has  made  greater  progress  than  that  which  comes  from 
the  special  use  and  adaptations  of  fertilizers. 

§  57.  Fertih'zers  belong  to  the  three  kingdoms,  and  it  will  pro- 
mote a  systematic  view  of  them  by  adopting  a  classitication  cor- 
responding to  their  origin  or  source. 

The  most  striking  difference  in  these  classes  is  their  bulk  and 
the  quantity  which  is  to  be  applied.  Those  fertilizers  which  are 
derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  bulky ;  and  hence,  one 
important  result  is  secured,  which  cannot  be  obtained  from  the 
others,  especially  the  minei'al  kingdom  ;  they  lighten  the  soil  and 
make  it  more  open  than  the  other  two;  a  result  which  is  due  from 
bulk  alone,  while,  if  porosity  results  from  mineral  fertilizers,  it  is 
in  consequence  of  chemical  changes  in  the  soiL  Mineral  manures 
are  more  special  than  vegetable  or  animal;  which  arises  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  less  complex  in  their  composition,  or  consist  of 
two  or  three  elements  only.  We  might  have  made  another  class, 
inasmuch  as  some  of  the  most  favorite  compounds  are  composed  of 
substances  deiived  from  the  three  kingdoms.  These  are  composts, 
and  it  might  at  first  sight  be  inferred  that  guano  owght  to  be  classi- 
fied in  both  the  mineral  and  animal  kingdoms ;  but  it  is  plain  that 
what  is  strictly  mineral  in  it  is  secondarily  derived  from  the  animal 
kingdom  only  ;  as  it  consists  of  the  excrements  of  birds,  who  have 
subsisted  mainly  upon  fish  or  other  animal  bodies. 

I  58.  Vegetable  fertilizers  do  not  furnish  exclusively  vegetable 
matter,  they  also  yield  up  mineral  matter,  which  has  already  been 
mentioned  under  the  name  inorganic.  It  is  that  which  has  been 
taken  up  and  fulfilled  its  functions  in  the  vegetable  organism,  and 
now,  after  its  death,  it  is  again  seperated  by  a  series  of  chemical 
actions,  and  restored  again  to  the  soil.  It  is  probably  the  best  part 
of  it,  and  sooner  or  more  easily  soluble,  or  more  quickly  prepared 
for  its  receptioii  into  the  vegetable  organism  than  the  unchanged 
elements  of  soil. 

§  59.  Vegetable  fertilizers  are  matters  which  have  decomposed; 
their  particles  separated  as  well  mechanically  as  chemically ;  in 
fine,  which  have  passed  through  a  series  of  changes  which  have 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  class  of  new  bodies.  The  vegetable 
loses  its  green,  and  is  blackened,  as  if  charred,  but  at  the  same 
time  is  softened  and  becomes  pulpy ;  the  fibrous  structure  disap- 
pears and  the  organization  is  broken  up.     It  has  become  subject  to 


NOETH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  51 

chemical  laws.  The  common  term  is  rotten  or  rotted.  All  vege- 
table matters  pass  througli  the  same  changes,  whether  matured 
wood,  twigs  or  leaves.  Matured  wood  requires  more  time,  but  ul- 
timately it  will  become  a  mixed  fertilizer,  and  have  a  value  pro- 
portioned to  the  kind  of  inorganic  matter  combined  with  its  quan- 
tit}'^ ;  for  observation  and  experiment  proves  that  the  pines,  poplars 
and  willows  have  less  mineral  matters  than  oak,  hickory  or  birch: 
and  certain  parts  have  more  than  others.  The  bark  of  the  oak  is 
richer  in  lime  than  the  wood ;  the  twigs  and  leaves  are  richer  in 
phosphates  than  the  wood,  and  the  fruits  are  worth  more  for  fer- 
tilizers than  other  parts,  because  they  contain  more  potash  and  phos- 
phates combined.  One  thousand  pounds  of  the  willow  wood  will 
enrich  the  soil  four  and  a  half  per  cent.,  while  one  thousand 
pounds  of  dry  leaves  will  enrich  it  at  the  rate  of  eighty-two  per 
cent.  Leaves  then  would  bear  hauling  much  farther  than  the  saw 
dust  of  willows  or  pines;  hence,  it  will  be  perceived  that  leaves 
must  produce  a  much  greater  effect;  they  are  richer  in  the  money 
elements. 

Fertilizers  belonging  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  used  in  a 
green  or  in  a  decomposing  state,  as  in  green  crops,  plowed  under 
and  in  the  condition  of  peat,  or  peaty  matter  formed  in  bogs,  and 
in  a  state  of  partial  decay. 

Green  crops  are  fertilizers  of  the  first  order,  being  decomposable 
speedily  in  consequence  of  the  full  charge  of  sap  which  they  con- 
tain when  plowed  under  the  sod.  They  change  into  a  light  black 
mould  and  assume  the  condition  of  a  compost  heap.  A  crop  is 
selected  for  this  purpose  which  grows  rapidly,  has  extensive  roots, 
and  is  supposed  to  obtain  its  stock  of  materials  in  part  from  the  at- 
mosphere. This  last  is  considered  a  clear  gain.  The  extended 
roots  concentrate  the  mineral  matter  in  the  plant,  and  if  its  roots 
run  deep,  bring  up  fertilizers  beyond  the  reach  of  the  wheat  plant. 
At  any  rate,  whatever  the  green  crop  contains  is  laid  down  in  a 
layer  some  four  or  five  inches  beneath  the  surface,  and  is  really  a 
magazine  of  food. 

The  red  clover  and  buckwheat  are  employed  most  frequently  in 
the  northern  and  middle  States,  while  the  pea  is  best  adapted  to 
the  latitude  and  climate  of  North  and  South-Carolina.  But  all  that 
part  of  North-Carolina  which  lies  north  of  the  Central  Railroad, 
may  sow  clover  instead  of  the  pea.     But  the  pea  is  a  richer  plant, 


62  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

especially  if  the  plant  is  mature,  and  its  pods  iilled  with  fruit. 
Til e  pea  has  long  roots;  we  have  found  them  twelve  feet  long. 
Green  manuring  is  not  confined  to  the  plants  named  ;  all  the  clover 
class,  as  lupin,  lucern,  etc.,  borage,  turnips,  and  wild  mustard  are 
sown  in  Europe  for  the  same  purpose. 

§  60.  The  advantages  accruing  from  green  crops  are  numerous, 
but  they  are  both  mechanical  and  chemical ;  the  development  of 
ammonia,  nitric  and  carbonic  acid  within  the  soil  and  which  therefore 
are  in  the  best  condition  to  be  absorbed  by  it,  belong  to  the  latter. 

It  is  maintained  that  a  green  crop  plowed  in  enriches  the  soil  as 
much  as  the  droppings  of  cattle  from  three  times  the  quantity  of 
green  food  consigned  to  the  soil  by  the  plow.  Another  advantage 
claimed  is,  that  about  three-fourths  of  the  whole  organic  matter  is 
derived  from  the  atmosphere.  This  is  the  most  likely  to  be  true  in 
the  clover  and  bean  family. 

Those  who  reside  near  the  sea  may  obtain  sea-weed,  and  plow 
it  in,  in  the  same  condition  that  it  is  cast  upon  the  shore.  Sea- 
weeds decompose  readily ;  they  yield  both  organic  and  saline 
matter,  and  are  nearly  equal,  for  potatoes,  to  barnyard  manure. 
Sea-weeds  are  a  specific  fertilizer  for  asparagus,  a  sea-shore  plant. 
The  coast  of  North-Carolina,  however,  does  not  abound  so  much  in 
this  class  of  fertilizers,  as  the  northern  rocky  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  foregoing  fertilizers  are  employed  in  their  wet  state.  The  fol- 
lowing are  spread  upon  the  ground  dry. 

§  61.  Straw  of  all  kinds  are  used  as  fertilizers.  In  the  condition 
of  straw  or  hay,  which  is  a  plant  dried  in  the  sun,  the  decomposi- 
tion is  comparatively  slow,  even  if  buried  in  the  soil.  Mixed  with 
animal  matter  in  heaps,  its  change  is  rapid  ;  fermentation  is  induced 
which  soon  reduces  the  mass  to  a  bulky  consistence,  or  the  fibre 
of  the  straw  is  separated  or  broken,  and  admits,  thereby,  of  a  ready 
incorporation  with  the  soil. 

Fertilizers  undergoing  a  series  of  changes  in  the  yards  where 
they  are  formed  are  subject  to  a  considerable  lo^s  of  weight.  The 
figures  given  by  Johnson  are  the  following.  A  recent  mixture 
weighs,  for  example,  from  46  to  50  cwt. 

After  6  weeks,  weighs  40  to  44     " 

After  8  weeks,  weighs  38  to  40     " 

After  when  half  rotten,  weighs  30  to  35     " 

And  when  fully  rotten,  weighs  20  to  25     " 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURTEY.  53 

A  loss  of  more  than  one-half  of  its  weight  during  the  time  re- 
quired to  make  what  is  called  short  manure.  But  it  is  not  a  loss 
of  one-half  its  value.  It  may  be  infered  that  the  principal  loss  in 
weight  is  wafer,  though  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  also  escape. 
Biit  an  informed  farmer  would  stop  the  loss  of  valuable  pai-ts  by 
the  use  of  absorbents,  as  plaster,  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
sprinkled  over  the  heap  or  mass,  while  fermenting.  By  these 
means,  if  the  loss  in  weight  was  not  entirely  prevented,  it  would 
greatly  diminish  that  which  is  regarded  as  valuable  and  be  confined 
to  the  watery  parts. 

Covering  the  dry  manure  in  the  soil  answers  the  same  purpose. 
Among  the  dry  materials  generally  discarded  by  our  farmers  is  saw 
dust.  It  hes  in  great  heaps  around  the  sites  of  old  saw  mills,  and 
has  never,  in  this  State,  been  employed  as  a  manure.  It  is  true 
that  it  generally  consists  of  pine,  still,  on  sandy  lands,  applied  in 
small  and  repeated  doses,  it  will  supply  organic  matter  and  prepare 
the  way  for  a  satisfactory  use  of  marl.  One  hundred  loads  to  the 
acre  is  a  suitable  quantity.  This  should  be  spread  and  ploughed 
in. 

§  62.  The  seeds  of  all  plants  are  richer  fertilizers  than  the  stems 
or  leaves.  Cotton  seed  is  in  great  repute,  indeed  all  that  furnish 
oils  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to  promote  vegetation. 

Rape  seed  (Brassica  napus)  is  equal  to  cotton  seed,  but  is  too 
valuable  for  its  oil  to  be  employed  before  expression.  The  cake 
which  remains  is  still  valuable. 

§  63.  Peat  is  one  of  the  most  common  materials  which  has  been 
employed  as  a  fertilizer,  and  has  received  the  same  sanction  of 
those  who  have  used  it,  and  as  it  is  widely  distributed  it  is  neces- 
sary to  notice  it  in  this  connexion.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the 
basis  of  all  composts.  It  may  be  employed  by  itself,  provided  it 
is  brought  by  sufficient  exposure  to  the  air  and  moisture  to  pass 
into  a  pulverulent  state  .when  mixed  with  the  soil.  If  lumps  of 
peat,  which  have  dried  in  the  air,  are  buried  in  the  soil,  they  con- 
tinue in  the  condition  of  lumps  as  a  nuisance  for  two  or  three  years, 
but  if  kept  moist  in  a  heap,  and  a  species  of  fermentation  is  excit- 
ed, it  then  pulverises  and  mixes  readily  with  the  soil. 

Peat  is  best  prepared  for  crops  by  composting  it  with  other  sub- 
stances.     Johnson  gives  the  following  formula  as  the  best,  all 


54:  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVlilY. 

things  considered,  especially  with  reference  to  the  cost  of  materials, 
and  the  effects  which  are  produced : 

Saw  dust  or  earthy  peat,  (muck,)   40  bushels. 

Ooal  tar,    20  gallons. 

Bone  dust, V  bushels. 

Sulphate  of  soda,  (glaubers  salts,) 1  cwt. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,  (ep.  salts,)   1^  cwt. 

Common  salt,    1^  cwt. 

Quick  lime, 20  bushels.  ^ 

''  These  materials  are  mixed  and  put  into  a  heap  and  allowed  to' 
ferment  three  weeks;  then  turned  and  allowed  again  to  ferment, 
when  the  compost  is  ready  for  use. 

"This  compound  is  compared  with  guano,  both  as  a  fertilizer  for 
hay  and  turnips. 

"  On  hay,  per  imperial  acre  : 

PEODTICB.  COST. 

Nothing,    416  stones. 

Guano,  3  cwt.,    T52     "  $7  50 

Compost,  40  bushels,   761     "  5  00 

"  On  turnips : 

PEOBtrCE.  COST. 

Farm  yard  manure,  28  yards,    ....  26  tons. 

Guano,  5  cwt.,  18     "  |12  50 

Compost,  64  bushels,    29     "  7  75 

According  to  the  foregoing  experiments  the  compost  seems  to  be 
better  than  guano." 

But  Johnson  remarks  that  the  experiments  need  repeating,  and 
yet  from  the  nature  of  the  compost  there  is  nothing  improbable 
in  the  results.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  compost  contains  coal 
tar,  a  substance  which,  a  priori,  we  should  be  very  likely  to  place 
any  where  else  than  in  a  list  with  fertilizers,  yet  experience  proves 
its  vahie. 

A  combination  of  one  hundred  parts  of  plaster,  and  from  one  to 
three  parts  of  coal  tar,  well  mixed  in  a  mortar,  is  valuable  in 
agriculture.  For  certain  purposes  olive  oil  is  added,  as  when  the 
mixture  is  designed  for  application  to  putrid  sores,  etc.  This  is 
principally  used,  but  without  the  olive  oil,  in  place  of  chloride  of 


NOETH-CAKOLINA    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  55 

lime  to  disinfect  sinks,  privies,  etc.  It  purifies  water  in  a  short 
time. 

But  it  is  also  valuable  in  agriculture,  one-half  a  pound  of  the 
powder  dissolved  in  5  or  6  gallons  of  water  and  sprinkled  on  the 
litter  of  a  stable  will  deprive  a  cubic  yard  of  manure  of  all  odor, 
and  prevent  the  loss  of  fertilizing  matter. 

Coal  tar  has  also  been  applied,  per  se,  to  wheat  stubble  for  the 
benefit  of  a  root  crop  which  was  to  succeed. 

The  use  of  coal  tar  is  mentioned  in  this  place  as  in  many  of  the 
towns  of  North-Carolina  it  can  be  obtained  at  the  gas  works.  It 
is  now  wasted.  It  is  expected,  also,  that  the  kerosine  oil  works, 
which  are  about  to  be  established  upon  Deep  river,  will  furnish 
large  quantities  of  coal  tar  for  market. 

§64.  But  to  return  to  the  consideration  of  peat  and  muck. 
Many  questions  have  been  raised  with  respect  to  their  use,  which 
are  really  superfluous  ;  as  in  what  kinds  of  soils  do  they  produce  the 
best  results,  etc.  Now,  this  substance,  if  properly  prepared,  acts 
beneficially  on  all  kinds  of  soils.  It  may  be  in  a  condition  to 
benefit  no  soil ;  and  hence,  prejudices  will  be  raised,  when  its 
failure  is  our  own  fault.  But  questions  respecting  the  best  mode  of 
preparing  it  for  use,  are  highly  important. 

There  are  many  modes  of  composting,  and  undoubtedly  some 
formula  prescribing  the  ingredients  should  be  adopted ;  and  in 
constructing  a  formula,  regard  must  be  had,  both  to  the  crop  it  is 
intended  for,  and  the  condition  of  the  soil  to  which  it  is  to  be 
applied. 

In  practice,  muck  or  peat  which  by  itself  is  scarcely  soluble,  re- 
quires an  alkali  to  efifect  a  solution  of  it  at  least. 

Mr.  Dana,  in  his  Muck  Manual,  gives  a  good  formula  which  can 
be  followed  by  any  person  who  is  inclined  to  try  it.  It  is  com- 
posed of  the  following  proportions  : 

Peat, 50  lbs. 

Salt, 1  bushel. 

Ashes, 1'     do. 

Water, 100  gallons. 

The  ashes  and  peat  are  well  mixed,  adding  a  little  water  to 
moisten  the  materials.  This  mixture  lies  a  week,  when  the  dis- 
solved salt  or  brine  is  to  be  added  and  well  stirred  in  a  hoorshead. 


66  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

It  requires  stirring  for  a  week,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.  The  brown 
liquid  which  floats  above  tlie  peat,  contains  the  whole  organic 
matter  in  the  salts.  This  is  to  be  appHed  to  the  land  it  is  designed 
for,  in  sohition.  In  the  course  of  four  or  five  weeks,  however, 
another  substance  is  formed,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  is  in- 
jurious to  vegetation.  But  in  the  mean  time,  repeated  additions  of 
water  w^ill  furnish  more  soluble  matter  from  the  peat.  A  decided 
benefit  is  seen  upon  corn,  onions,  grass,  barley,  etc.  A  compost 
of  these  materials  applied  dry  will  be  attained  with  less  trouble* 
and  though  its  effects  may  not  be  exhibited  so  soon,  yet  they  will 
last  longer.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  respecting  the 
powers  of  the  roots  of  vegetables  to  select  or  obtain  nutriment, 
the  necessity  of  obtaining  a  soluble  condition  of  peat  before  its  ap- 
plication, is  not  well  settled  ;  for  it  seems  that  the  roots  do  act  upon 
insoluble  matters,  and  appropriate  them  to  the  use  of  the  plant. 
By  this  phraseology,  it  is  not  meant  that  roots  do  take  up  insoluble 
material,  but  that  they  have  a  power  of  imparting  solubility  which 
water  b}^  its  own  action  has  not. 

§  65.  Fertilisers  of  Animal  Origiti. — It  will  be  superfluous  to 
enumerate  all  the  kinds  which  are  referred  to  the  animal  kingdonn. 
It  is  sufficient  to  observe  that  everything  has  been  or  may  be  em- 
ployed for  manures  which  has  lived.  All  parts,  all  organs,  hair. 
wool,  skin,  flesh  and  bone,  help  make  up  the  list.  To  the  foregoing 
we  may  add  the  animal  liquids,  blood,  and  the  excrements  both 
solid  and  liquid.  As  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  they  possess  differ- 
ent values. 

A  knowledge  of  their  composition  furnishes  a  reason  why  they 
are  so,  as  well  as  how  they  act. 

Bone  is  composed  of: 

Phosphate  of  lime,   55.50 

"             Magnesia, 2.00 

Soda  and  common  salt,    2.50 

Carbonate  of  lime,    3.25 

Fluoride  of  calcium,     3.00 

Gelatine,    33.25 

100.00 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  07 

In  adding  dry  bone  pulverized  there  is  added  thirty-three  per 
cent,  of  organic  matter  in  gelatine. 

Bones  are  employed  in  a  dry  state  after  being  ground  or  crushed. 
They  of  course  act  slowly  in  this  condition,  but  with  excellent  re- 
sults. The  most  popular  mode  of  employing  bone,  however,  is  as 
a  super-phosphate,  as  it  is  called.  This  substance  is  prepared  by 
mixing  one  half  of  its  weight  or  its  whole  weiglit,  which  is  better, 
with  sulphuric  acid,  (oil  of  vitriol,)  previously  diluted  with  three 
times  its  hulk  of  water.  The  materials  require  repeated  stirring. 
When  the  solution  is  effected,  a  pasty  substance  is  obtained.  Two 
modes  of  applying  it  are  recommended.  The  first  in  substance,  in 
the  condition  of  a  powder.  This  is  obtained  by  mixing  with  char- 
coal powder,  dry  peat,  saw-dust  or  a  fine  vegetable  soil.  If  it  is 
wished  to  drill  in  this  fertilizer  with  the  seed  for  a  crop,  as  wheat, 
the  powdered  state  as  above  may  be  resorted  to,  or  if  it  is  designed 
to  use  a  solution,  it  is  necessary  to  add  forty  or  fifty  times  its  quan- 
tity of  water,  when  it  may  be  applied  to  the  crop  with  a  water 
cart.  The  latter  mode  brings  out  results  much  more  speedil}^,  and 
as  farmers  are  anxious  to  see  immediate  effects,  the  latter  may 
afford  more  encouragement  to  use  those  fertilizers  which  belong 
to  the  first  class. 

§  6Q.  The  comparative  results  as'  determined  by  experiments  of 
the  two  forms  of  bones,  the  crushed  and  dissolved,  should  be  given 
in  this  connexion.  Thus,  while  16  bushels  of  crushed  bones  gave 
ten  tons  and  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  two  bushels  of  super- 
phosphate gave  nine  tons  and  twelve  hundred  pounds ;  the  latter 
approximating  very  closely  upon  the  former.  But  this  statement 
taken  literally,  does  not  reveal  to  us  the  state  of  the  case,  fov  the^ 
latter  has  cost  something  for  its  preparation,  but  the  difference  in; 
the  long  run  will  be  found  to  be  much  less,  inasmuch  as  the  pow- 
dered preparation  will  continue  to  fertilize  the  soil  for  the  next  10 
years  without  additional  expense;  and  yet  the  following  practice 
we  would  recommend,  viz :  for  all  cultivated  crops,  as  turnip&,. 
corn,  oats,  etc.,  to  use  the  super-phosphate  on  the  score  of  speedy 
action  and  immediate  results;  for  long  continued  use,  as  for  pas- 
tures and  hay,  the  ground  bones.  The  powder  will  be  slowly  das- 
solved  by  the  aid  of  carbonic  acid  and;  furnish  thereby  a  constant 
supply  of  food  for  years  in  succession..  So  also,  as  a  fertilizer  for 
vines  and  fruit  trees,  the  bone  in  substance  answers  a  batter  pur- 
4 


58  NORTH- CAROLINA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

■pose  than  the  super-phosphate.  It  is  no  object  to  over  manure  a 
vine  or  tree;  what  is  wanted  is  a  steady  and  constant  supply. 
When  a  great  growth  of  vine  and  limbs  is  obtained  by  great  doses 
<of  fertilizers,  the  wood  is  not  perfected,  and  the  tendency  will  be 
to  develope  imperfectly  consolidated  or  unripe  wood  rather  than 
fruit;  there  will  be  an  over-burthen  of  the  latter.  Even  uncrnshed 
bones  buried  among  the  roots  of  a  vine  produce  the  best  of  results. 
In  that  way,  the  bones  are,  as  it  were,  penetrated  by  thousands  of 
spongioles,  which,  bj  a  power  not  well  understood,  supply  from 
these  comparatively  insoluble  bodies,  all  the  nutriment  they  require 
of  this  kind,  for;  heavy  crops. 

The  experynents  of  Wohler  show  that  bones  are  soluble  in  water 
vwitho^it  tke  ^id  of ,. carbonic  acid.  Water  which  has  been  filtered 
;through.:a  ma^s  of 'bones,  has  always  contained  phosphates  in  solu- 
tion. But  it  appears  that  the  quantity  dissolved  depends  partly 
upon  the  stage  of  putrefaction  which  they  have  reached ;  and 
hence,  it  is  inferred  timtfresh  bones  kept  wet  will  furnish  this  im- 
portant fertilizer  in  a  mode  cheaper  tlian  that  which  is  usually  pur- 
;-sue;d, 

§  &7.  Horn  (horn  core)  is  .composed  of: 

Water, ! 10.31 

Phosphates  of  hme  and  ^magnesia,    46.14 

Carbonate  of  limq, 7.71 

.Gelatine  (^organic  roattei;) 35.84 

100.00 

§  68.  Xiquid  excrements,  as  tlie  urine  of  different  animals,  in- 
stead of  being  preserved  in  !its  liquid  state,  have  been  of  late 
iniixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  gypsum  to  fix  the  volatile  com- 
ipounds,  as  the  ammonia,  and  then  dried  to  a  powder;  in  this  state 
It  is  ;a,ppli.ed  to  land.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  it  has  an  advantage  over 
the  Tdttixtureveomposed  of  peat.  Let  everyone  consult  his  feelings 
in  regard  to  .the  ^preparation  of  these  bodies,  especially  where 
apparatus  is  not  at  .hand,  and  he  will  readily  understand  why  it  is 
that  the  preparation  and  even  preservation  of  many  valuable  sub- 
stances is  neglected;;  .for  much  care  and  work  is  involved  in  the 
process  when  evaporation  and  preparation  of  superphosphates  are 
.talked  about.     But  when  [preaeivvation  and  preparations  are  sim- 


SrOETH-CAROLINl.   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  <0 

plified,  it  is  possible  to  persuade  farmers  to  undertake  it.  It  is  not 
so  much  for  want  of  knowledge  that  so  much  is  neglected;  it  is 
i)ecanse  the  work  is  presented  in  a  shape  too  complicated,  or  re- 
-quiring  too  much  attention  and  labor.  Guann,  with  all  its  expense, 
has  taken  everywhere,  because  it  is  ready  to  apply.  If  farmers 
had  to  cook  it  before  it  could  be  used,  very  little  would  have  been 
lased  in  North-Carolina. 

§  69.  For  these  reasons  it  is  believed  that  very  few  will  resort  to 
the  use  of  tanks  and  distribution  carts  for  the  preservation  and 
distribution  of  the  liquid  excrements  of  men  and  cattle.  A  muck 
or  peat  yard  with  a  depression  in  the  middle,  which  may  be  made 
the  receptacle  of  offal,  blood,  urine,  etc.,  will  be  found  the  most 
eligible  mode  of  preserving  these  bodies.  It  is  known  that  every 
ihing  is  to  go  there-  and  all  that  will  be  required  to  preserve  the 
volatile  matters  and  absorb  offensive  gases,  will  be  to  use  plaster 
.and  peat  intermixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  coal  ta.r,  which  can 
now  be  procured  in  almost  every  village  of  the  State.  These  im- 
perfect compost  beds  may  be  turned  over  with  the  fork  from  time 
to  time  in  order  to  secure  a  perfect  mixture.  It  should  be  spread 
broadcast,  and  the  harrow  used  to  mix  it  with  upper  soil. 

§  70.  For  the  preparation  of  the  fluid  substances  of  animals,  a 
compost  with  peat  is  probably  the  best  which  can  be  devised. 
Blood  and  fluid  excrements  mixed  with  charcoal  or  peat,  the  latter 
of  which  is  the  -cheapest  and  most  easily  prepared,  form  with  little 
labor  and  expense  an  excellent  compost.  Indeed  the  basis  should 
be  kept  in  heaps  for  the  reception  of  fluid  refuse  matter;  even  the 
soapsuds  of  the  wash  room,  which  are  generally  wasted,  should 
And  a  repository  ther«.  But  let  the  small  farmer  enumerate  the 
animal  substances  which  might  be  saved  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
The  blood,  hair,  wool,  bristles,  feathers,  skin,  old  leather,  woolen 
rags,  fragments  of  bones,  to  which  we  may  add  entire  carcasses  of 
dead  animals,  even  cats  and  dogs,  will  form  a  formidable  mass 
when  deposited- together  in  the  farmyard.  These,  when  moistened 
or  wet  in  a  heap  with  ammoniated  compounds,  or  even  water,  will 
soften,  undergo  a  partial  fermentation,  and  in  time  become  as  val- 
uable as  guano.  The  absorbant  power  of  peat  and  charcoal  will 
fix  all  the  valuable  gases. 

The  presei*vation  of  the  foregoing  substances  require  no  cash, 
cand  very -little  time,  4ind  there  is  no  necessity  of  attempting  the 


60  NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

regnlation  of  the  quantity  by  weight  or  measure.  Woolen  rags  may 
be  deposited  among  the  roots  of  vines  or  fruit  trees;  hair,  bristles, 
old  slioes  and  leather,  etc.,  may  have  the  same  destination.  One 
ton  of  hair,  bristles  and  wool  are  worth  as  much  as  four  or  five  tons 
of  blood.  The  dry  materials  enumerated  are  fitted  to  those  crops 
which  are  to  be  sustained  for  several  years  in  succession,  as  meadow 
land  and  pasturage,  while  the  fluid  and  easily  decomposed  kinds 
are  better  suited  to  the  annual  hoed  crops.  In  tliis  distribution  we 
obtain  more  speedily  their  money  value,  Nitrogen  is  supposed  to 
be  the  most  important  element  of  animal  bodies.  Thus  dry  blood 
contains  15.50  per  cent.;  dry  skin,  hair  and  horns,  from  16  to  17.50 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Still,  all  these  substances  arc  rich  in  phos- 
phates, and  hence,  their  value  is  due  in  part  to  the  latter. 

To  the  planter,  the  importance  of  providing  for  the  preparation 
or  preservation  of  night  soil,  presents  itself  in  a  strong  light ; 
especially,  if  we  can  confide  in  the  conclusions  of  Bousingault. 
According  to  this  distinguished  farmer  and  chemist,  the  liquid  and 
solid  excrements  of  an  adult  individual  amount  on  the  average  to 
1-|  pounds  daily,  and  that  they  contain  3  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 
According  to  this  calculation,  they  will  amount  in  a  year  to  547 
pounds,  containing  16.41  pounds  nitrogen  ;  a  quantity  sufficient  to 
yield  the  nitrogen  of  800  pounds  of  wheat,  or  of  900  pounds  barley. 
The  quantity  is  more  than  sufficient  to  fertilize  an  acre  of  land. 
From  the  foregoing  it  is  not  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  what 
is  lost  upon  plantations  stocked  with  one  hundred,  or  any  given 
number  of  laborers ;  or  to  place  it  in  another  point  of  view,  how 
much  might  be  gained  by  the  adoption  of  means  which  shall  en- 
force the  preservation  of  excrements,  both  liquid  and  solid. 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


CHAPTER  YIIL 

Solid  excrements.     Guano.     Composition  and  comparative  yalue.     Discrepancies 
stated. 

§  71.  The  solid  excrements  of  animals  form  a  well  known  class 
«ef  fertilizing  bodies  of  great  value.  Their  value  depends  upon 
the  food  upon  which  the  animals  are  supported.  It  may  consist  of 
matters  little  better  than  ground  hay  intermixed  with  small  por- 
tions of  mucus;  or  if  fed  upon  corn,  it  is  richly  charged  with  am- 
monia, or  perhaps  still  richer,  if  fed  upon  fish  and  animal  substances. 
The  kinds  receive  their  designation  according  to  their  origin. 
Night  soil,  human  excrement,  which  when  dried  with  gypsum  or 
lime,  is  sold  under  the  name  o^  poudrette.  The  former,  in  conse- 
<<|uence  of  its  richness,  loses  more  of  its  value  by  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere,  than  any  other  kind.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  of 
mixing  it  with  absorbants,  such  as  plaster,  charcoal,  peat,  sawdust, 
-etc.  To  these  may  be  added  the  sulphuric  acid  or  muriatic;  both 
form  with  ammonia  a  valuable  fertilizer.  Muriatic  acid  may  be 
sprinkled  over  foecal  matters  in  the  vault  from  a  copper  watering 
vessel.  The  acid  sliouid  be  diluted  with  two  and  a  half  times  its 
l)ulk  of  water. 

The  products  of  the  horse,  cow  and  hog  should  be  mixed  together, 
as  in  that  case  the  properties  which  are  wanting  in  one  are  sup- 
plied by  the  other.  Fermentation,  resulting  in  a  prepared  state 
for  use,  will  be  secured  more  safely  than  when  ihej  are  used  alone. 
Those  of  the  horse,  it  is  well  known,  if  packed  into  heaps,  heats 
and  is  nearly  destroyed.  That  of  hogs  fattening  upon  grain  is 
probably  richer  than  any  other,  but  is  far  less  liable  to  heat  than 
the  former.  It  is  accused  of  imparting  an  unpleasant  taste  to  roots 
when  freely  used,  in  consequence  of  containing  an  unexamined 
volatile  substance. 

§  72.  The  excrement  of  birds  is  richer  in  fertilizing  matter  than 
■quadrupeds,  in  consequence  of  mixture.  The  urate  which  exists 
in  the  urine  of  the  latter,  passes  off  with  the  foecal  in  the  for- 
mer. That  of  pigeons  is  in  repute  in  Flanders,  Spain  and  other 
countries  in  Europe.  In  some  parts  of  Spain  it  is  sold  for  four- 
pence  a  pound,  and  is  used  for  melons,  tomatoes  and  flower  roots. 


6^ 


NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


Its  valuable  properties  are  no  doubt  due  to  the  grains  upon  which 
the  birds  feed.  In  Flanders  the  nsanure  of  one  hundred  birds  is 
Worth  twenty  shillings  a  year  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Equally  valuable  are  the  same  products  from  the  domestic  fowtv 
geese  and  ducks,  when  fed  upon  corn.  When  the  domestic  fowl 
is  lodged  in  a  suitable  shed,  the  free  use  of  gypsum  upon  the  floor 
is  indispensable  to  the  preservation  of  the  volatile  purts.  It  is  ne- 
cessary to  use  it  with  the  same  care  as  is  observed  in  the  use  of  a?l 
compounds  which  contain  the  elements  of  ammonia. 

§  73.  Of  the  solid  animal  fertilizers,  the  most  celebrated  of  this 
class  is  Guano,  now  generally  used  and  is  by  some  regarded  as 
almost  indispensable  for  the  successful  cultivation  of  wheat  and 
tobacco,  etc. 

This  substance  consists  of  the  excrements  of  birds,  (sea  fowl,) 
which  feed  mostly  on  fish  or  animal  matter.  The  accumulation 
and  composition  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmos- 
phere. There  are  two  varieties  in  mar'^et,  the  South-American 
from  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  the  Mexican  from  the  Gulf.  The 
former  is  from  a  rainless  district,  and  hence  retains  its  soluble  nmt- 
ter ;  the  latter  is  from  a  district  subject  to  rains,  and  hence  its  am- 
monia salts  and  other  soluble  matters  are  diminished  to  a  minimum 
quantity.  A  little  reflection  will  enable  a  person  of  information  to 
understand  their  relative  values,  especially  when  it  is  known  that 
the  latter  frequently  contains  from  60  to  8Q  per  cent,  of  bone  earth, 
and  the  former  50  per  cent,  of  soluble  matters,  and  rich  in  ammo- 
niacal  salts,  and  only  about  23  to  25  per  cent,  of  phosphates  or  bone 
earth.  In  accounting,  however,  for  the  eifects  of  guano,  we  should 
not  lose  sight  of  their  complex  composition.  This  tact  is  brought 
out  in  the  following  analysis  : 

TOELKK?. 

Urate  of  ammonia,   3.24 

Oxalate  of  ammonia,    13.35 

Lime, 16.36 

Phosphate  of  ammonia, 6.45 

"        Lime,    9.94 

"        Ammonia  and  magnesia, 4.19 

"        Soda,    5.29 

Muriate  of  soda,   0.10 

Sulphate  of  soda,   1.19 

"        Potash,    4.22 


NO-BTH'-GAKOLMA   aEOLOGICAL   SUBVEY.  |a 

.;  Muriate  of  ammonia, ^..^ 6.50 

Water  and  organic  matter,    5.90 

Clay  and  sand, 28.31 

Tliis  elaborate  analysis  is  selected  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
complexity  of  composition  of  gnano.  The  most  valuable  parts  of 
it,  it  will  be  oeen,  are- the  ammoniacal  salts  and  phosphatic  salts. 
In  some  varieties  the  guano  is  weakened  by  sand  and  clay ;  it  is 
often  much  less,  rarely  more^  unless  adulterated.  Potash  is  usually 
regarded  as  existing  in  too  small  proportions  to  effect  its  value,  yet 
it  is  found  as  a  salt  in  this  case  to  be  larger  than  usual ;  the  per 
centage  rarely  exceeding  one  per  cent.  It  may  be  expected,  there- 
fore, that  this  deficiency  may  be  observed  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  of  use. 

§  Y4r.  The  length  of  time  during  whfch  guano  acts  is  estimated 
variously  by  observers,  though  all  agree  that  the  guano  of  the 
rainless  districts  have  a  shorter  hfe  than  those  which  are  preserved 
upon  a  rainy  coast.  The  reason  is  obvious.  In  this  climate  the 
former  are  expended  in  two  years ;  the  Tatter,  as  they  resemble 
bone  earth,  last  longer, — at  least  twice  as  long. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  guano,  in  this  country,  has  laid  agricul- 
ture under  immense  obligations.  It  has  encouraged,  or,  indeed, 
inaugurated  a  new  system,  and  has  given  that  impetus  to  it  which 
will  never  die  out. 

The  advantages  of  guano  in  the  Southern  States  are  numerous. 
By  its  use  old  fields  are  brought  into  bearing  immediately,  and 
bear  at  once  money  making  crops.  Several  years  are  required  to 
resuscitate  an  old  field  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  procedure.  The 
result,  then,  is  the  saving  of  time.  On  cotton  and  tobacco  its 
influence  is  felt  strongl}''  in  securing  early  a  good  stand.  Its  influ- 
ence is  continued  down  to  the  right  period  for  ripening,  aiid  no 
doubt  in  those  cases  where  the  proper  quantity  is  used  it  ceases  to 
grow,  and  the  process  proceeds  regularly,  and  thereby  secures 
uniformity  ;  a  point  of  the  greatest  importance  where  a  high  priced 
tobacco  is  the  object. 

The  quantity  of  guano  per  acre,  which  is  useful,  seems  to  be 
tolerably  well  determined.  Yery  few  use  more  than  two  hundred 
pounds  to  the  acre.     Curious,  as  well  as  instructive  experiments 


mt  NOETH-CAitOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

are  given   in  Johnson's  elements  of  agriculture  of  the  effects  of 
quantity  on  a  crop.     Thus: 

QUANTITY  OF   GTJAKO.  EFFECT  ON  THE  TCRNIP  CROP.         ON   THK   AFTEE   CKOP   OF  WIIEAT. 

4  cwt.  to  the  acre,  (Scotch.)     18  tons  of  good  turnips.  Good  wheat. 

8  cwt.  to  the  acre.  14  tons  very  indifferent.  Inferior. 

f  Looked,  when  young,  won-      f  Stable  black,  grain 

!      derfully  well,   but  there  dark,  and  not  larg- 

lo  cwt.  to  the  acre.  <  ,.^.,  i    n  ■   ^^         t      ■[  <.u  n 

j      was  little  iulb  in  the  end,       j      er    than     small 

I       produce  10  tons.  I      rice. 

Guano  is  accused  of  acting  injuriously  when  its  use  is  protracted. 
The  probable  influence  of  guano,  when  used  for  several  years  on 
the  same  area,  is  to  cause  an  exliaustion  of  those  elements  in  the 
sqil  which  the  guano  cannot  supply.  Potash  is  probably  so  much 
diminished  that  it  ceases  to  furnish  it  to  ihe  crops.  However  this 
may  be,  it  is  evident  that  its  use  increases  so  largely  the  quantity 
or  •weight  that  to  supply  any  element  from  the  soil  alone  would 
diminish  the  stock  or  magazine  in  a  greater  ratio,  and  hence  more 
speedily  than  ordinary  crops.  Bence,  as  the  supply  is  derived 
originally  from  the  rocks,  and  never  can  accummulate  under  these 
circumstances,  though  every  year  adds  its  atoms  to  the  soil,  yet  it 
is  used  faster  by  far  than  it  is  produced  ;  the  consequence  is,  the 
stock  will  be  too  much  dimniishod  to  supply  the  wants  after  an 
uncertain  period,  and  the  soil  will  actuall}^  become  poor  in  one  or 
more  elements  necessary  to  the  cultivated  plant. 

If  potash  is  deficient  in  a  soil,  and  is  the  result  of  the  excessive 
use  of  guano,  the  addition  of  leached  ashes  will  supply  the  deflci- 
ency  ;  but  a  mixture  of  well  pulverized  peat  and  ashes  with  guano 
will  best  supply  the  deficiences  of  this  fertilizer.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  use  of  guano  ought  not  to  be  intermittent.  As  we 
have  said,  it  saves  time  in  resuscitating  old  fields.  If,  after  one  or 
two  years,  guano  is  dismissed,  and  the  fertility  is  kept  up  afterwards 
by  vegetable  and  mineral  substances  composted  together,  the  evil 
of  exhaustion  will  be  averted. 

§  75,  In  consequence  of  the  high  price  of  guano,  an  article  of  an 
inferior  value  is  often  brought  to  market,  or  else  it  is  adulterated. 
Chemical  changes  also  affect  its  value.  It  is  not  easy  to  form  a 
judgment  by  occular  inspection.  Those  which  are  hrown  have  un- 
dergone those  changes  which  approximate  a  decomposition,  which 


NORTH-CABOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  I# 

discharges  a  large  proportion  of  its  ammonia.  Hence,  the  lighter 
the  color  the  less  change  it  has  undergone,  and  therefore  the  better. 

A  strong  odor  of  ammonia  is  a  good  indication ;  if  not  free,  a 
trial  may  be  made  by  mixing  a  spoonful  of  it  with  air-slacked  lime 
in  a  glass ;  ammonia  fumes  ought  to  be  exhaled  if  good.  Too  much 
water  is  indicated  by  its  mechanical  condition.  Fifty-five  dollars 
per  ton  for  water  is  a  poor  investment.  Guano  then  should  be  dry. 
If  much  sand  is  intermixed  it  may  be  detected  by  mixing  it  with 
water  in  a  tumbler,  giving  a  little  time  for  subsidence,  pour  off  the 
top,  repeat  the  operation  a  few  times,  and  the  quantity  of  sand  will 
remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  tumbler.  There  is  another  experiment 
which  it  is  easy  to  perform  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
quantity  of  sand,  and  if  weighed,  the  result  may  be  quite  accurate. 
Heat  the  weighed  quantity  to  redness,  when  the  volatile  matters, 
ammonia  and  others  of  that  nature,  will  be  consumed  or  dissipated. 
Dissolve  the  remainder  in  dilute  muriatic  acid  of  the  shops  by  ap- 
plying a  moderate  heat.  The  remainder  will  be  sand  or  other  use- 
less earth.  Elaborate  analyses  are  too  difficult  and  expensive  to 
be  undertaken  tor  a  moderate  quant'ty  of  guano,  but  the  foregoing 
may  be  resorted  to  and  ought  to  be ;  for  they  may  account  for  a 
failui-e,  or  explain  more  satisfactorily  the  results  upon  the  crop, 
whether  remarkably  good,  indifferent  or  bad.  Much,  however, 
must  be  trusted  to  the  character  of  the  merchant. 

§  76.  The  money  value  of  animal  manures  cannot  be  accurately 
determined  for  many  reasons,  so  much  depends  on  the  season, 
and  circumstances  under  which  the}'-  are  employed.  It  is  only  the 
theoretical  value  which  chemistry  fixes.  This  is  undoubtedly  to 
be  trusted,  but  it  often  happens  that  an  inferior  manure  thus  tested 
has  a  better  influence  than  one  which  has  tlie  highest  chemical  or 
theoretical  value.  It  seems  to  be  settled  that  the  value  of  a  manure 
for  a  given  crop  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  it  contains, 
and  tables  have  been  constructed  which  are  designed  to  express  this 
fact.  It  is  assumed,  however,  that  a  selected  example  is  represent- 
ed by  a  given  number,  it  may  be  1000  or  100.  This  is  the  standard 
with  which  the  others  are  compared,  and  it  ma^^  be  interesting  to 
consult  a  table  constructed  upon  this  principle,  and  also  occasional- 
ly useful.     The  following  is  given  bj  Johnson: 


6Q  NORTH-CAKOLINA   &E0L0GICA1L   8UKV1CY. 

Farm  yard  manure,   100  taken  as  a  standard. 

Solid  excrements  of  the  cow,    , 125 

"             "              "       horse, 73 

Liquid  excrements  of  the  cow, 91 

"               "              "       horse,    1& 

Mixed          "             "       cow,    . .  9S 

"               "              "       horse,    54 

"               "              "       sheep, 36 

»               "              •'       pig,    64 

Dry  flesh,    3 

Pigeon's  excreta, 5 

Flemish  liquid  manure,    200 

Liquid  blood,  15 

Dry        do 4 

Feathers,    3 

Cow  hair,  3 

Horn  shavings,   3 

Dry  woolen  rags,    2^ 

There  is  considerable  truth,  no  doubt,  in  the  foregoing  table,  in- 
asmucli  as  experience  supports  it  so  fVequent]}^  that  in  the  minds 
of  many  it  may  in  fact  merit  a  high  degree  of  contidence.  But  in 
the  example,  woolen  rags  rank  in  this  scale  as  high  as  2-|,  that 
is,  2|-  pounds  of  woolen  rags  possess  as  much  fertilizing  power  as 
100  pounds  of  farmyard  manure,  is  doubtful;  the  practice  of  wast- 
ing them,  however,  should  not  be  tolerated.  According  to  the 
cbomistry  of  pigeons'  excrements,  5  pounds  are  worth  as  niuch  as 
100  pounds  of  farmyard  manure.  Reliable  expeiience,  and  all 
that  Johnson*  has  said  of  it  in  another  place,  seems  to  sustain  in 
part  this  view,  but  all  things  considered,  it  is  possible  it  also  is 
ranked  too  high. 


■  Johnson's  Elements  of  Agriculture,  p.  213 — 14. 


NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKTET.  67 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Mineral  fertilizers.  Sulphates.  Native  phosphates.  Carbonates.  Nitratesi 
Silicates.  Ashes.  Analysis  of  the  ash  of  the  white-oak.  Composition  of 
peat  ashes.     Management  of  volatile  and  other  fertilizers, 

§  77.  As  the  name  implies,  mineral  fertilizers  are  derived  from 
the  mineral  kingdom.  Tiiey  comprehend  exactly  the  common  ele- 
ments of  soil,  and  differ  from  them  only  in  being  isolated  and  in 
large  quantities.  Marl  does  not  differ  from  the  carbonate  of  lime 
in  the  soil;  phosphate  of  lime  is  a  soil  element,  bnt  we  procure  it 
in  quantities  and  intermix  it  with  soil,  and  then  call  it  a  fertilizer. 
The  process  of  fertilization  consists  simply  in  resupplying  what  has 
been  removed,  or  adding  it  when  it  is  from  the  start  defective,  or 
entirely  absent.  The  farmer,  in  fertilization,  goes  to  work  and  sup- 
plies from  the  mineral  stores  of  nature  what  to  him  is  wanting  to 
make  his  crops  grow. 

§  78.  This  kingdom  is  rich  in  fertilizers,  the  nu?nber  exceeds 
those  of  both  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 

As  a  class,  they  are  composed  of  combinations  of  two  and  some- 
times three  elements,  which,  as  a  whole,  is  termed  a  salt,  and  they 
resolve  themselves  into  two  parts,  a  base  and  an  acid ;  thus  sul- 
phate of  lime  is  a  salt,  and  consists  of  lime,  which  is  the  base,  and 
sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol,)  which  is  the  acid.  Yirtually,  it  seems 
to  be  simply  a  base  and  an  acid ;  still,  lime  is  a  compound  of  oxy- 
gen and  calcium,  and  oil  of  vitriol  of  sulphur  and  oxygen  ;  there 
is,  therefore,  three  partners  in  the  concern — oxygen^  suljphuT  !'nd 
calcium.  Now  in  its  action,  it  is  not  calcium,  but  lime  ^  and 
though  sulphur  seems  to  be  dissolved  in  certain  animal  fluids,  yet 
it  is  generally  the  compound  of  sulphur  and  oil  of  vitriol  which  is 
found  in  the  organic  tissues.  In  the  mind  of  tlie  farmer  oil  of 
vitriol  should  not  be  strongly  persistent;  for,  in  combining  with 
lime,  or  iron,  or  a  5«tf6,  this  powei'ful  substance  loses  its  sour,  caustic 
properties,  and  the  gj^psum  formed  is  really  one  of  the  gentlest, 
mildest  and  modest  bodies  in  the  whole  mineral  kingdom,  notwith- 
standing it  contains  that  audacious  consumer  of  all  things,  oil  of 
vitriol. 

§  79.  But  we  propose  to  consider  somewhat  in  detail  the  mineral 
fertilizers  under  the  heads  they  are  ranked  by  writers  upon  agricul- 


68  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

itural  chemistry,  and  to  make  such  remarks  upon  them  as  we  may 
4eera  useful  to  the  planter. 

It  need  not  be  interred,  it  appears  to  us,  that  because  a  substance 
is  classed  with  minerals,  that  its  mode  of  action  differs  materially 
from  those  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  or  that  they  are 
selected  by  the  roots  of  plants  and  taken  up  by  them  in  a  different 
mode.  In  the  vegetable  and  animal  economy,  they  must  be  re- 
garded as  necessities,  and  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  though  in 
quantity  they  ajie  necessary  only  in  small  proportions. 

§  80.  /Sulphates,  are  no  doubt  taken  up  into  the  vegetable  organ- 
ism, and  if  decomposed  by  the  roots  or  other  agencies  in  the  soil  with- 
out the  sulphur  which  exists  in  may  plants,  could  not  be  satisfac- 
torily acconntefl  for.  Being  taken  up  as  sulphates,  the  plant  has 
power  to  decompose  them  and  appropriate  the  sulphur  and  the 
base  of  the  salt. 

§  81.  Sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum.  This  substance  is  feebly 
■soluble  in  water.  In  its  purest  crystalline  condition,  it  is  transpa- 
rent, and  is  called  selenite  ;  when  massive  it  is  white  or  gray,  and 
often  graiuilar,  or  else  compact  when  it  forms  the  common  gypsum 
of  agriculture,  and  which  may  be  distinguished  from  carbonate  of 
lime  or  marble  by  its  softness,  and  not  effervescing  with  acids.  It 
is  so  eoft  as  to  be  scratched  by  the  finger  nail. 

It  occurs  abundantly  in  nature,  but  is  never  found  associated 
with  primary  rocks,  as  granite,  mica  slate,  gneiss,  etc.  This  should 
be  recollected.  There  is  no  plaster  in  North-Carolina  unless  it  is 
associated  with  the  sandstones  of  Orange,  Chatham  or  Moore.  The 
agalraatolite,  resembling  soapstone,  has  been  mistaken  for  it;  in- 
deed, true  soapstone  is  often  mistaken  for  it.  Gypsum  is  usually, 
too,  accompanied  with  salt  springs  or  salt,  and  the  only  indication 
that  possibly  gypsum  may  occur  in  this  state  are  the  feeble  saline 
wells  of  this  formation. 

Gypsum  appears  to  have  a  specific  action  on  the  clovers  and  plants 
of  this  natural  order,  though  its  activity  is  less  on  some  species  than 
others.  The  white  clover  springs  up  under  the  influence  of  ashes 
and  marls,  the  red  under  that  of  gypsum.  Applied  directly  to 
many  crops,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  that  it  has  benefitted  them. 
This  is  the  case  with  wheat.  Ko  one  at  present  applies  it  to  his 
crop  of  wheat  directly,  but  it  is  first  used  to  grow  a  crop  of  clover. 
This,  after  being  fed  oft"  in  part  by  stock,  is  plowed  in  and  the  wheat 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   aUKVET.  09 

then  sowed.  It  is  tlionglit  by  many  farmers  in  the  wheat  growing 
districts  of  New  York,  tliat  the  system  o^  clover,  gyjpsum  and  wheat, 
with  alternate  rests,  is  the  true  system  of  rotation,  and  following  it 
the  lands  will  remain  as  fertile  as  they  ever  were.  Tiiis  view,  how- 
ever, it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  fact  that  several  elements 
are  removed  with  every  bushel  of  wheat  sold,  which  gypsum  can- 
not supply ;  the  natural  result,  insolvency,  ought  to  follow,  as  the 
supply  of  food  is  limited. 

Gypsum  has  a  tine  effect  upon  the  Irish  potatoe.  It  is  sown 
broadcast  upon  the  leaves  or  foilage  when  it  is  hoed  the  first  time. 
Grass  lands  are  also  improved  by  it.  Gypsura  appears  to  be  useful 
to  wheat  in  this  way ;  the  grain  is  first  soaked  over  night,  and 
when  wet  is  rolled  in  plaster  which  adheres  to  it;  when  it  is  sown^ 
it  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  gppsum.  In  this  mode  of  use,  it  seems 
to  aid  in  bringing  it  forward,  or  in  promoting  an  early  germination, 
A  remarkable  fact  with  respect  to  the  use  of  it  in  the  gypsum  coun- 
try of  New  York,  is,  that  it  acts  as  decidedly  upon  farms  where 
gypsura  exists  in  beds,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 

In  JSTew  York,  gypsum  has  been  applied  with  benefit  to  all  crops 
but  not  by  every  individual.  It  is  said  that  upon  the  soil  of  Long 
Island  it  is  of  no  use,  and  it  is  accounted  for  on  the  ground  that  the 
soil  is  already  supplied,  or  that  the  sea  spray  furnishes  enough  for 
every  crop;  certain  it  is  that  where  the  soil  has  |- per  cent,  it  is 
useless  to  add  more.  The  failure  of  gypsum  is  generally  due  to 
the  fact  that  there  is  enough  in  the  soil,  if  so,  it  may  be  determined 
by  analysis. 

§  82.  The  good  effects  of  gypsum  has  been  explained  in  several 
ways.  One  theorist  has  maintained  that  it  is  simply  a  stimulant 
to  plants,  or  a  condiment.  This  view  is  overhung  with  doubts. 
The  most  rational  theory  seems  to  be  that  it  furnishes  both  sulphur 
and  lime,  or  is  indeed  food.  Those  plants  whose  growth  is  strik- 
ingly promoted  by  its  use  contain  notable  proportions  of  both  sul- 
phur and  lime.  Clover,  for  example,  is  one;  mustard  is  another. 
I  have  already  stated  that  rape  seed,  which  is  a  mustard  plant, 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  the  former. 

The  importance  of  gypsum,  or,  to  be  more  general,  the  sulphates, 
will  be  best  appreciated  when  it  is  stated  that  the  most  important 
constituents  of  our  bodies  contain  and  require  sulphur. 


70  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Thus  those  parts  of  the  blood  which  are  known  as  fibrin  ami 
serum,  as  well  as  the  egg  of  fowls,  contain  sulphur.  This  is  strik- 
ino-lj  man-ifest  when  they  are  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  as  they 
all  give  off  cotmpounds  which  exhale  the  offensive  odor  of  a  sulphur 
compound,  well  known  in  the  rotten  egg; — so  also  they  all  blacken 
silver.  Now  the  bodies  named  above  are  all  of  animal  origin,  but 
the  sulphur  is  not  diseng'iged  by  the  animal  forces.  It  is  obtained 
ready  formed  in  the  roots  and  seeds,  the  cereals  and  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  peas,  beans  and  wheat. 

To  -account  for  the  origin  of  sulphur  in  animal  organisms,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  back  to  the  soils,  to  those  salts,  such  as  gypsum, 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  etc.,  which  contain  sulphur  in  combination. 
To  the  v-eg«table  organism  is  assigned  the  business  of  separating 
this  substance  from  its  combinations,  and  form  the  roots  and  seeds 
spoken  of;  the  animal  that  feeds  upon  them  obtains,  without  labor, 
the  sulphur,  separated  and  united  with  such  compounds  as  we  find 
in  the  blood,  fibrin  and  serum.  The  vegetable  kingdom  thereby 
becomes  a  great  labor-saving  machine  to  the  animal,  as  all  its  heavy 
and  complicated  duties  are  performed  by  it  in  preparing  food  for 
animals.  It  is  not  necessarj^  that  we  should  be  able  to  account  for 
changes  effected  by  the  vegetable  before  we  can  admit  the  forego- 
ing views.  Experiment  assures  us  of  the  facts  in  the  case.  Feed 
a  clover  plant  or  a  mustard  with  gypsum  and  the  sulphur  will  be 
found  in  both. 

§  83.  Gypsum  is  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  2  to  3  tons  per  acre 
broadcast.  When  used  for  Indian  corn  it  is  applied  around  the 
hill,  and  it  is  regarded  as  an  eminent  absorber  of  water  as  well  as 
ammoma. 

§  84.  When  gypsum  has  been  used  for  many  years  upon  the 
same  ground  it  ceases  to  produce  an  increase  of  the  same  crop. 
,  The  ground  is  then  said  to  be  plaster  sick.  It  occurs  only  with 
those  lan-ds  where  it  exists  in  excess  in  the  soil  in  consequence  of 
its  \'veQ  application  for  a  succession  of  3'ears.  The  remedy  is  to 
suspen<il  its  use  and  substitute  wood  ashes. 

§  85.  Sulphate  of  ammonia. — We  place  this  salt  in  juxtaposition 
with  gypsum,  the  object  will  be  seen  in  the  character  of  the  subjoined 
reniai  ks.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  c-omposed  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  ammonia.  We  see  nothing  of  it  in  the  soil  or  elsewhere,  unless 
we  take  special  pains  to  pi'ocure  or  make  it.     Sulphate  of  ammonia 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  71 

is  manufactured  from  the  ammoniacal  liquor  of  gas  works  fi'om  the 
coal  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gas.  If  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to 
this  liquor,  the  sulphate  will  be  formed,  and  some  coals  yield  a 
liquid  which  gives  14  oz.  of  sulphate  to  the  gallon.  Sulphate  of 
ammonia  is  much  more  valuable  than  sulphate  of  lime,  as  it  con- 
tains two  important  elements,  sulphur  and  nitrogen.  The  nitrogen 
being  much  more  valuable  than  the  lime.  Besides,  the  animal  and 
vegetable  sulphur  compounds,  fibrin,  serum,  white  of  eggs,  casein, 
etc.,  contain  and  require  both  sulphur  and  nitrogen.  Here  in  the 
sulphate  of  ammonia  they  exist,  and  in  a  salt  highly  soluble.  The 
simple  chemical  change  required  by  the  plant  is  to  separate  the 
elements  of  water,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  when  the  sulphur  and 
nitrogen  are  in  a  condition  to  pass  into  the  compositon  of  its  or- 
ganism. 

This  salt  will  probably  be  found  in  the  markets  of  this  State,  see- 
ing that  many  of  the  principal  villages  have  gas  works  in  their 
suburbs,  and  may  therefore  furnish  the  ammoniacal  liquid  which 
may  be  converted  into  the  sulphate,  or  it  maj-  be  used  directly,  after 
being  greatly  diluted. 

But  sulphate  of  ammonia  may  be  secured  by  all  persons  who 
keep  a  stable.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  gypsum.  If  this  sub- 
stance is  sprinkled  often  over  the  floors  of  stables,  as  it  should  be, 
it  absorbs  the  ammonia  exhaled  from  excrement  of  the  animals. 
The  ammonia  is  mostly  in  the  condition  of  a  carbonate.  When  the 
gypsum  is  used  in  a  quantity  sufficient  to  absorb  all  the  escaping 
ammonia,  a  large  amount  of  the  sulphate  will  be  ultimately  formed 
among  the  excrements.  The  gypsum  is  decomposed  by  it,  and  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  the  result  as  it  regards  the  sulphate  ot  lime,  and 
the  sulphuric  acid  goes  over  to  the  ammonia  and  forms  sulphate  of 
ammonia.  The  advantages  of  this  change  are,  the  ammonia  be- 
comes fixed,  it  is  no  longer  a  volatile  compound,  and  there  is  really 
no  loss  attending  any  of  the  chemical  ones  involved  in  the  pro- 
cesses. 

The  sulphate  of  ammonia,  however,  is  quite  soluble,  and  should 
not  be  exposed  to  rains  out  of  doors  until  it  is  applied  to  the  soil 
where  it  is  wanted. 

From  the  foregoing  we  learn  several  important  uses  to  which 
gypsum  may  be  put,  1,  As  an  absorbent  of  injurious  and  ofif'en- 
sive  odor,      2.  The  formation  of  an  important  salt — important, 


T2  NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

because  it  contains  the  elements  of  blood  and  muscle.  3.  It  pre- 
vents the  destructive  chemical  changes  which  ammonia  effects  in 
walls  plastered  with  mortar.  The  lime  of  the  mortar  being  changed 
into  a  nitrate  of  lime  bj  the  formation  of  nitric  acid,  which  results 
in  the  rnin  of  the  plastering.  Besides,  coaches,  harness,  saddles, 
etc.,  are  injured  by  tlie  escape  of  ammonia. 

The  positive  economy,  therefore,  of  supplying  stables  with 
plaster  is  too  evident  to  require  comment. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  costs  in  England,  ready  made,  £16  per 
ton.  About  one-ha]f  cwt.  is  applied  to  the  acre.  It  is  applied  to 
soils  which  contain  inactive  vegetable  matter,  and  it  may  be  mixed 
with  wood  aslies,  bones,  animal  and  vegetable  manures;  it  may  be 
used  as  a  top  dressing  to  sickly  crops,  which  it  revives  and  regen- 
erates. 

§  86.  Sulphates  of  jpatash  and  soda  are  also  important  fertilizers. 
The  sulphate  of  soda  (glauber  salt)  possesses  a  good  degree  of 
activity,  and  is  not  expensive.  It  is  used  successfully  upon  grasses, 
clover,  green  crops  and  the  pea.  Its  quantity  per  acre  is  about 
one  and  a  half  cwt, 

SulfJiate  of  magnesia^  (epsom  salts.)  Its  application  to  the  crops 
just  mentioned  is  attended  with  satisfactor}'^  results.  Magnesia  is 
an  important  element  in  all  the  grains  ;  and  hence,  where  this  earth 
is  deficient  the  sulphate  is  an  elegant  compound  to  be  used  as  a 
top  dressing,  for  its  supply. 

§  87.  Sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  is  an  astringent  salt,  and  may 
be  used  destructively  to  a  crop.  It  is  a  poison,  and  yet  in  small 
doses  its  use  is  beneficial  to  feeble  crops,  or  to  fruit  trees.  It 
imparts  a  deeper  green  to  the  foliage  and  appears  to  give  vigor  to 
unhealthy  individuals.  In  these  respects  its  action  is  similar  to 
that  upon  the  human  frame  and  constitution.  It  has  been  used  in  a 
.weak  solution  as  a  top  dressing  to  grass.  Two  beds  of  an  acid  sul- 
phate of  iron  are  known  in  this  State,  one  in  Edgecombe  county, 
the  other  in  Halifax  county,  near  Weldon.  A  spoonful  applied  to 
a  hill  of  corn  kills  it.  To  prepare  it  for  use  mix  with  marl.  It  is 
by  this  agent  converted  into  gypsum. 

This  substance  in  both  cases  occurs  in  a  lignite  bed,  consisting 
of  stems,  leaves,  and  trunks  of  trees.  The  organic  matter  has 
combined  in  process  of  time  with  sulphate  of  iron.  This,  in  its 
turn,  or  when  air  has  access  to  it,  decomposes  and  furnishes  the 


•  NORTH-CAKOLINA    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  73 

salt  in  question,  and  where  abundant,  is  important,  provided  marl 
beds  are  accessible. 

§  88.  Native  phosphate  of  lime. — This  mineral  exists  in  large 
quantities  in  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  The  most  abundant 
source  of  it  is  in  Essex  county,  New  York,  in  connexion  or  asso- 
ciated with  magnetic  iron,  M'here  it  forms  in  some  part  of  the  vein 
from  one-sixth  to  one-half  its  weight.  It  seems  to  be  inexhaustible. 
It  may  be  separated  from  the  iron  by  washing,  or  by  magnets ; 
both  methods  liave  been  pursued.  It  exists  frequently  also,  in  pri- 
mary limestones,  associated  with  hornblende,  mica,  felspar,  etc. 
The  great  source  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  soils  is  probably  the 
granites  and  other  allied  rocks.  It  is  present  in  lavas  and  other 
igneous  n^cks.  But  it  is  in  minute  particles,  and  rarely  when  it 
exists  in  granite  and  other  compounds  is  it  visible,  and  is  only 
ascertained  to  be  present  by  the  most  careful  analysis  of  the  rock. 

Other  sources  of  the  native  phosphate  of  lime  are  the  sediments 
which  contain  fossils.  Most,  if  not  all  the  fossiliferous  limestones, 
the  mails  of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  divisions  of  rocks,  furnish 
it  in  per  centages  varying  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  per  cent.  In 
the  use  of  limestones  and  marls,  therefore,  as  fertilizers,  we  obtain 
this  impoi'tant  compound  as  phosphates. 

Native  phosphate  of  lime,  or  as  it  exists  in  soils,  is  quite  insolu- 
ble in  pure  water ;  but  for  its  solution  carbonic  acid  is  depended 
upon  in  an  uncultivated  soil.  When,  however,  the  planter  em- 
ploys common  salt,  or  salt  of  ammonia  as  fertilizers,  he  provides 
in  part  for  the  solution  of  phosphate  of  lime.  In  sulphate  of  am- 
monia, phospliate  of  lime  dissolves  as  readily  as  gypsum  in  waterv 

§  89.  In  North-Carolina  the  principal  source  of  it  is  in  the  marl- 
region.     We  have  never  found  it  in  the  primary  rocks  nor  associa- 
ted with  any  of  its  iron  ores,  as  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  nor 
in  tlie  primary  limestones  of  the  mountain  belt.     The  marls  alii 
contain  it  as  an  organic  product,  for  in  every  living,  being  it  isi 
found  botli  in   their  hard  and  soft  parts.     It  is  principally  in  the 
latter  that  it  exists  in  the  mai'ls.     The  value  of  the  marls  are  in-- 
creased  by  its  presence,  and  the  striking  effects  of  its  use  may  ofV- 
ten  be  attributed  to  small  quantities  of  phosphate  of  lime.     There^- 
are  frequently  small,  round,  hard  bodies  in  marl;  bods,  called  coprfh 
lites.  which  are  often  in  sufficient  quantities  to  pay  for  selection  to 
be  employed  in  converting  them  into  supeivphosphates  by  sulghu- 
5 


74  Nt)RTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

ric  acid.  They  contain  about  50  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  h'me. 
They  are  hard,  and  but  sh'ghtly  acted  npon  by  water  and  the  at- 
mosphere, and  will  tliei'efore  remain  like  rocks,  unclianged,  and  of 
course  benetlt  the  soM  hut  slightly.  By  the  use  of  an  equal  weight 
of  sulphuric  acid  they  may  be  converted  into  a  valuable  fertilizer. 
They  would  require,  however,  to  be  broken  into  small  pieces  by  a 
hammer  and  frequently  stirred.  A  portion  would  remain  in  pow- 
der, in  the  form  of  gypsum.  It  may  be  treated  like  the  ordinary 
super-phosphate  of  lime  made  from  bones.  Super-phosphate  of 
lime  is  worth  about  thirty-iive  dollars  per  ton. 

The  practice  of  burning  bones  for  the  purpose  of  pulverizing 
them  easily  is  not  advisable;  it  is  of  course  attended  with  the  loss 
of  all  the  organic  matter,  and  as  we  believe  with  effects  greatly 
diminished. 

§  90.  Carbonates. — The  carbonates  are  the  most  common  of  min- 
erals. At  the  head  of  the  list  stands  carbonate  of  lime,  known  as 
limestone  or  marble.  Limestone  may  be  known  by  its  effervescing 
with  acids.  It  cannot  be  scratched  by  the  nail,  but  readily  by  a 
knife.  Its  colors  are  numerous — white,  black,  brown,  flesh-colored, 
together  with  shades  and  tints  produced  by  the  oxides  of  metals, 
or  a  mixture  of  earth.  When  pure  it  is  white  and  usually  granular, 
but  many  limestones  of  a  palaeozoic  and  mesozoic  age  are  compact. 

The  limestones  which  are  regarded  pure  are  composed  of  from 
^Q  to  98  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.     Its  chemical  constitution  is : 

Carbonic  acid,    43.7 

Lime,   5G.3 

Certain  limestones  contain  also  magnesia,  which  are  best  known 
amder  the  name  of  dolomites.     A  dolomite  is  composed  of: 

1  Carbonate  of  magnesia,    45.8 

,  Ciirbonate  of  lime,    54.2 

When  in  a'ddltion  to  the  magnesia  limestones  contain  2U  per  cent. 
^f  ferruginous  clay,  they  form  hydraulic  limestones^  which  furnish 
aoiaaterial,  when  burned,  having  the  property  of  becoming  hard  or 
soli^  under  water. 

The  XQ^p.  marble  applies  to  limestones  which  take  a  polish.  0th- 
Gv  lihiestosiite^  are  desigjaated.'bjthe  terms  ai'gilaceousand  ferrugiu- 


NORTH-CAJIOLINA   (tEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  75 

ons  or  magnesian,  according  to  the  name  of  the  substance  which  is 
mixed  witli  the  rock. 

Limestone  is  nearly  insohible  in  pure  water,  1  gallon  dissolving 
only  2  grains,  but  when  water  is  charged  with  carbonic  acid  it  dis- 
solves freely. 

Limestone,  when  ground  finely,  might  be  applied  to  soils  as  a 
fertilizer,  but  its  solution  is  slow  to  act.  In  the  form  and  condition 
of  marl,  it  is  much  more  efficient. 

Quicklime  is  sometimes  important ;  it  is  best  adapted  to  stiff  clay 
soils,  and  is  applied  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  open  and  po- 
rous. It  has  also  a  chemical  action  which  undoubtedly  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  its  mechanical  effects,  that  of  attacking  the  claj  and 
libtjrating  potash  or  the  alkalies. 

Erroneous  opinions  have  been  entertained  with  respect  to  the 
action  of  quicklime  on  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  Accordi!>^ 
to  Dr.  John  Davy,  quicklime,  instead  of  promoting  fermentatiou,  ar- 
rests it  in  vegetable  matters,  as  peat  for  example,  and  as  it  regards 
its  action  upon  animal  bodies,  it  only  attacks  the  cuticle,  nails  and 
hair,  exerting  no  destructive  influence  upon  the  other  tissues. 

Mixed  with  peat  and  vegetable  organic  matter,  it  confers  a  ne- 
cessary solubility,  or  rather,  the  probable  action  is  the  formation  of 
an  organic  salt  of  lime,  w-hich  is  soluble.  This  view  is  sustained 
by  the  fact  that  in  the  absence  of  organic  matter,  lime  exerts  no 
perceptible  effects.  Quicklime  should  not  be  mixed  with  stable 
manure,  unless  there  is  added  at  the  same  time  gypsum,^  to  absorb 
the  ammonia  which  the  lime  will  be  instrumental  in  dischar^rin^. 
Peat,  in  a  state  of  fineness,  may  be  employed  in  the  absence  of 
gypsum,  as  its  absorbent  powers  are  equally  great. 

The  deficiency  of  limestone  in  this  State  is  notorious.  The  moun- 
tains and  the  region  of  the  Yadkin  are  tolerably  well  provided  for. 
The  midland  counties,  which  take  in  a  belt  over  one  hundred  miles 
wide,  are  destitute  of  it.  The  lower  counties  supplj''  carixmate  of 
lime  for  agriculture  in  their  marl  beds,  and  might  also  quicklime 
for  building,  white-washing,  etc.  The  banks  of  the  Neuse,  2()  m.les 
above  Newbern,  are  well  stocked  with  consolidated  marl,  well  adap- 
ted in  composition  for  quicklime. 

For  more  than  a  century,  burnt  lime  has  been  used  in  England 
for  the  benefit  of  the  soil.  It  may  be  shown  that  potters  and  brick 
clay,  which  are  stiff  and  unyielding,  contain  potash  and  other  alka- 


%  . 

76  NOBTH-CAKOLmA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVET. 

lies.  Now,  no  plowing,  hoeing,  or  mechanical  operation  can  hasten 
very  materially  the  liberation  of  these  important  elements.  No 
mechanical  means  effect  materially  its  condition  ;  chemically,  they 
are  too  slow.  If  we  resort  to  the  use  of  quicklime,  in  the  fall  spread- 
ing it  over  the  plowed  field,  and  allow  it  to  act  through  the  winter, 
the  potash  will  be  liberated  and  the  whole  field  become  porous. 

§  91.  That  form  of  carbonate  of  lime  which  is  known  as  marl, 
acts  more  efficiently  as  a  fertilizer  than  the  ordinary  air  slacked 
lime.  It  is  not  simply  a  salt  of  lime  alone,  but  a  mixture  of  fine 
carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  and  some  or- 
o-anic  matter.  Marl  appears  to  be  in  a  more  favorable  condition 
than  pure  lime  for  an  easy  solution. 

This  substance,  though  it  appears  inert  to  the  eye,  still  has  to  be 
applied  under  the  guidance  of  a  few  rules.  It  cannot  be  freely 
used  on  poor  soils;  those,  we  mean,  which  are  destitute  of  organic 
matter.  It  being  an  absorbent  of  water,  it  is  prone  to  act  injuri- 
ously upon  a  crop  in  dry  weather,  or  to  burn  it.  If  on  the  contra- 
ry, the  quantity  applied  is  proportionate  to  the  organic  matter,  it 
will  form  soluble  combinations  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  crop. 

There  is  no  poisonous  matter  in  the  marl  usually,  and  the  proba- 
bility is  that  when  in  large  doses,  as  600  bushels  to  the  acre,  it  de- 
prives the  plant  of  water,  being  in  itself  one  of  the  strongest  ab- 
sorbents of  moisture  known.  Where  sulphate  of  iron  and  alumina 
are' present,  this  astringent  salt  being  a  poison,  the  plant  is  killed 
by  its  chemical  action  upon  its  tissues.  As  marl  is  applied  to  the 
surface  and  rarely  buried  by  the  plow  deeply,  it  occupies  a  position 
which  commands  all  the  moisture  in  a  dry  time. 

To  forestall  the  evils  of  a  large  application,  it  may  be  compos-ted 
with  peat,  or  any  organic  matter;  it  should  always  be  prepared  in 
this  way.  But  when  an  over  dose  has  been  applied,  the  most  direct 
mode  of  neutralizing  its  bad  effects,  is  to  plow  it  in  deeply.  It  will 
then  become  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  soil,  and  all  the  or- 
ganic matter  of  it.  It  will  probably  be  changed  into  a  fertilizing 
agent.  As  used  in  common  cases  in  this  State  with  the  oi-dinary 
depth  of  plowing,  a  large  body  of  it  must  effect  unfavorably  the 
whole  surface,  for  there  is  only  a  few  inches  of  soil  for  it  to  act 
upon. 

§  92.  The  marls  of  North-Carolina  are  not  rich  in  lime,  but  still 
remarkable  effects  are  obtained  by  their  use.    The  following  shows 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  77 

the  composition  of  a  marl  upon  the  plantation  of  Col.  Clark,  of 
Edgecombe : 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    6.800 

Carbonate  of  lime,   16.100 

Magnesia,    0.436 

Potash,    0.616 

Soda, 1.988 

Sulphuric  acid, 0.200 

Soluble  silica,    0.440 

Chlorine, 0.030 

Phosphoric  acid,    0.200 

Sand, 72.600 

The  complex  nature  of  this  marl  is  exhibited  in  this  analysis ;  it 
shows  that  it  is  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  vegetable  in  furnishing 
as  large  a  list  of  tliose  elements  which  the  ashes  of  plants  usually 
contain. 

An  eocene  maH  from  the  plantation  of  Benj.  Biddle,  Esq.,  of 
Craven  county,  gave : 

Sand,    9.60 

Carbonate  of  lime,    85.00 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,  containing  phosphoric 

acid, 4.40 

Magnesia,    trace. 

Those  marls  which  are  thus  rich  in  lime,  are  more  liable  to  be 
used  in  excess. 

§  93.  The  action  of  the  carbonates  upon  vegetation  is  usually 
attributed  to  the  organic  salts  which  are  generated  in  the  soil,  as 
the  crenafces  and  apocrenates  of  lime,  etc.;  but  in  the  formation 
of  these  salts  it  may  happen  that  carbonic  acid  is  set  free,  and  in 
this  condition  becomes  also  a  contributor  of  matter  to  the  growing 
plant.  The  carbon  of  the  carbonic  acid  will  be  retained  in  the 
plant,  and  the  oxygen  set  free. 

The  action  of  marls,  as  a  class  of  carbonates,  upon  soils  is  more 
favorable  in  the  long  run  than  lime,  except  where  quick  lime  upon 
clays  is  required.  The  use  of  lime  for  many  years  has  induced 
complaints,  whether  justly  or  unjustly,  is  not  perhaps  fully  settled  ; 
but  it  is  charged  with  exhausting  the  soil,  and  like  guano,  of  which 


t8  NOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

we  have  spoken,  the  charge  seems  to  be  reasonable  enough  and  to 
rest  on  the  same  grounds. 

If  the  charge  is  sustained,  we  can  readily  see  by  comparing  the 
composition  of  marl  with  common  lime,  that  the  former  supplies  a 
much  greater  number  of  fertilizing  elements  than  the  latter; 
indeed,  it  is  probable  that  marls,  like  ashes,  cantain  the  most 
needful  elements ;  and  hence,  the  annual  application  of  marl  i» 
not  likely  to  cause  an  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  because  of  the  con- 
stant additions  made  by  its  use.  It  rather  ought  to  grow  better 
yearly ;  for  the  cotton  crop  does  not  require,  or  does  not  remove 
as  many  pounds  of  inorganic  matter  as  there  are  applied.  This 
subject,  however,  we  have  not  heard  spoken  of,  and  we  have  never 
heard  of  injurious  effects  of  marl  which  could  by  any  means  be 
attributed  to  exhaustion,  and  we  are  confident  from  the  natnre  of 
the  facts  bearing  upon  the  subject,  that  where  especially  a  compost 
is  made  of  the  marl,  it  will  continue  for  long  periods  to  produce 
good  effects. 

Marl  seems  well  adapted  to  all  those  crops  where  the  product 
sought  is  made  up  of  cellular  tissue,  as  the  lint  of  cottor,  the  lint 
of  flax  and  hemp,  the  fruit,  such  as  the  apple,  because  lime  is  the 
basis  of  cellular  tissue.  The  phosphoric  salts  are  required  in  the 
cereals,  the  parts  sought  for  must  be  rich  in  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus. These  last  are  contained  in  stems,  lint,  bark,  etc.,  in  niuch 
less  proportions. 

§  94.  Carbonates  of  potash  and  soda. — The  lirst  was  anciently 
called  the  vegetdble,  and  the  latter  the  mineral  alhali.  Both,  how- 
ever, are  derived  from  the  mineral  kingdom,  but  they  are  derived 
for  commercial  purposes  from  the  ashes  of  vegetables. 

Pearlash  is  a  carbonate  of  }  otash  ;  it  is  the  common  substance 
used  in  biscuit  making,  or  short  cake,  though  the  bi-carbonate  has 
displaced  the  old  or  common  carbonate.  Neither  of  these  substan- 
ces have  been  used  extensively  in  field  agriculture.  The  latter 
has  become  a  favorite  fertilizer  for  strawberries.  Their  composi- 
tion and  the  fact  of  their  occurrence  in  the  ash  of  all  plants,  proves 
their  adaptation  to  crops.  Their  cost,  however,  for  general  and 
extensive  use,  is  the  only  draw-back  to  their  application  to  corn, 
wheat,  potatoes,  etc. 

§  95.  Carbonate  of  ammonia  is  a  white  salt,  with  the  pungent 
odor  of  hartshorn.     It  exists  in  the  ammoniacal  liquids  already  no- 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVEY.  79 

ticed,  and  is  given  off  in  stables  in  an  impure  state,  or  mixed  with 
the  effluvia  of  animal  matters.  It  is  an  active  fertilizer.  Its  true 
value,  as  in  tiie  case  of  other  compounds  of  ammonia,  is  due  to  its 
ability  to  furnish  nitrogen  to  vegetation. 

As  it  regards  the  compounds  or  salts  of  ammonia  t'oi-  wheat  and 
other  corn  ci'ops,  it  seems  to  be  established  that  tliey  are  essential 
to  tlic  increase  of  grain,  beyond  the  natural  pi-odnce  of  a  soil,  aided 
by phoHpJiatic,  fertilizers.  The  experiments  of  Mr.  Ijiwes,  of  Hert- 
fordshire, England,  gave  the  following  results: 

APPLICATIOH   PBE  IMPEBIAI.  ACRS.  PKODUOE. 

In  grain.  In  straw. 

1844.     Super-phosphate  of  lime,  560  lbs.,  >  ,„  Unshek  1  112  lbs 

Silicate  of  potash,  220,  ^  lb  Dusneis.         1,11/ ids. 

'"*"■     Mttt?'^''T,"''[    eachicwt,  SHdo.,  4,206  do., 

1846.     Sulphate  of  ammonia,  2  cwt,  27      do.,  2,244  do. 

The  increase  by  the  salts  of  ammonia  upon  the  lormer  crop  ma- 
nured by  super-phosphate  of  lime  and  silicate  of  potash,  is  a  striking 
result,  and  shows  that  the  soil  in  order  to  reach  ir-  capacity  for  a 
crop  of  cereals,  requires,  besides  the  phosphaft's,  th(»se  fertilizers 
which  can  furnish  nitrogen.  It  does  not  prove  that  phosphates  can 
be  dispensed  witli,  but  only  that  unless  nitrogenous  ijodies  are  ad- 
ded the  crop  will  be  less. 

§  9G — Nitrates. — The  union  of  nitric  acid  with  a  l)ase,  as  potash 
and  soda,  constitute  nitrates,  a  remarkable  class  of  bodies.  They 
are  all  soluble  and  easily  decomposed.  When  thrown  upon  glow- 
ing coals  they  deflagrate,  or  burn  energetically  with  flashes  of 
flanse  and  scintillation. 

Nitrate  of  potash.,  saltpetre.,  niter. — Its  manufacture  illustrates 
its  formation  in  the  soil.  If  the  refuse  of  old  buildings,  irs  mortar, 
animal  refuse,  ashes,  &c.,  are  mixed  in  a  heap  and  exjiosed  to  ihe 
air  and  watered  occasionally,  especially  with  putrid  ui-ine,  they 
become  cliarged  with  nitrates  of  potash  and  soda.  Whenever, 
then,  the  cii'cumstances  are  favorable,  these  salts  will  be  formed; 
the  animal  matter  furnishing  the  nitrogen  which  unites  as  it  i?  de- 
veloped with  oxygen.  The  elements  of  the  nitrates  are  found 
under  houses,  in  caves,  or  wherever  organic  matter  is  mixed  with 
earth  protected  from  rains. 


80  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Both  nitrates  of  potash  and  soda  are  highly  esteemed  in  agricul- 
ture, though  the  high  price  of  saltpetre  debars  it  from  general 
use.  Its  action  upon  young  crops,  when  applied  to  them  at  the 
rate  of  one  cwt.  per  acre,  is  highly  favorable.  Trees,  the  sugar 
cane  and  the  grasses  become  fresh  and  green,  and  when  combined 
with  the  phosphates  is  one  of  the  most  important  fertilizers,  as  it 
contains  in  combination,  the  most  important  elements  which  the 
crop  demands — nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Nitrates 
increase  the  foliage  of  plants;  and  hence,  for  grass,  or  meadows, 
they  ai'e  particularly  and  immediately  serviceable. 

The  nitrate  of  soda,  sometimes  called  soda-saltpetre,  is  a  native 
product  of  Peru  and  Chili,  being  formed  in  the  earth  in  those  sec- 
tions where  j-ain  rarely  falls. 

§  97.  Chlorides. — The  compounds  consist  of  chlorine  and  a  base, 
as  sodium,  uniting  directly,  or  without  the  previous  union  of  the 
base,  with  oxygen.  The  most  common,  and  to  the  agriculturist  the 
most  importaut,  is  salt,  or  the  common  table  salt.  It  is  a  native 
production  in  many  countries,  occurring  in  solid  beds,  which  have 
to  be  quarried  like  rock.  The  bed  near  Cracow,  Poland,  is  sup- 
posed to  extend  500  miles,  and  is  1,200  feet  thick.  Salt  springs 
are  common,  but  the  ocean  is  the  great  reservoir  of  salt.  It  con- 
tains about  four  ounces  to  the  gallon  of  water.  Salt  has  been  and 
is  variously  estimated  as  a  fertilizer.  It  strengthens  the  straw  of 
the  cereals,  and  is  supposed  to  increase  the  weight  of  the  grain. 
It  is  more  important  in  land,  or  at  a  distance  from  the  sea,  than 
upon  the  shoves. 

§  98.  Chloride  of  ammonia. — Sal  ammoniac  of  the  shops.  Mu- 
riate of  ammonia.  This  well  known  salt  has  proved  by  experi- 
ment, to  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  upon  crops.  It  is,  however, 
too  expensive  in  its  pure  state,  to  be  economically  employed  in  ag- 
riculture. A  solution  for  steeping  seed  corn  is  recommended  ;  it 
hastens  gei-mination,  and  is  supposed  also  to  add  to  the  luxuriance 
of  the  crop. 

§  99.  Silicates. —Ture  silica,  or  pure  flint  is  strictly  an  acid,  but 
it  is  so  insoluble  that  under  common  circumstances  its  real  charac- 
ter is  disguised.  But  put  finely  ground  flints  into  a  solution  of 
potash  and  the  silica  unites  with  the  potash,  and  forms  a  soluble 
silicate  of  potash.  Silicates,  then,  are  bodies  constituted  like  other 
salts,  having  a  base  united  with  soluble  flint.     The  silica  may  be 


NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  81 

separated  from  its  combination  by  the  addition  of  an  acid,  and  tbe 
silica  will  form  by  itself  a  gelatinous  mass,  which  is  a  silicic  acid 
with  water.  If  this  gelatinous  mass  is  dried,  the  silica  becomes 
gritty  and  is  really  now  what  is  called  quartz,  and  is  no  longer 
soluble. 

Now  in  the  soil  there  is  always  a  small  quantity  of  soluble  quartz, 
and  certain  plants  must  have  it  in  order  to  give  strength  to  their 
stems.  All  the  cereals  and  grasses  are  furnished  with  this  substance, 
which  is  mainly  deposited  upon  the  outside  ;  which  both  protects 
and  strengthen  the  straw.  ]t  is  not  properly  a  nutriment,  but  in 
the  organization  of  the  grass  tribes  it  is  an  essential  element ; 
wherever  the  soil  is  deficient  in  soluble  silica,  the  straw  of  the 
grain  is  weak.  The  celebrated  German  Chemist,  Liebig,  proposed 
the  use  of  special  manures,  consisting  of  silicates  mostly,  as  a 
fertilizer  for  wheat,  rye,  oats,  turnips,  &c.  His  special  manures, 
however,  have  failed  to  meet  the  expectations  of  his  friends.  They 
failed  on  the  ground  that  mineral  substance  alone,  and  by  itself,  is 
insufficient  to  supply  the  wants  of  vegetation.  The  failure  has  an 
important  bearing  on  our  practical  views,  showing  clearly  enough 
that  organic  matter  is  essential  to  plants.  It  does  not  prove  that 
what  Liebig  proposed  was  useless  and  unnecessary,  but  that  he  did 
not  go  far  enough  ;  he  fell  short  of  a  sound  theory  by  excluding 
from  his  potent  fertilizers  vegetahle  mattei^  from  which  the  organic 
acids  are  formed. 

The  silicates  of  rocks  are  not  wholly  insoluble,  they  are  attacked 
by  water  and  carbonic  acid,  and  by  their  joint  action  are  dissolved. 
It  is  by  their  action  that  the  soil  is  furnished  with  soluble  silicas. 
That  such  a  result  is  possible  is  shown  by  the  action  of  rains  and 
carbonic  acid  upon  window  glass,  while  a  silicate  which  becomes 
gradually  opake,  especially  in  stables,  where  carbonic  acid  escapes. 
Distilled  water  alone  dissolves  glass.  The  tumblers  used  in  carbon- 
ated spring  water  are  coroded  by  carbonic  acid 

Straw  furnishes  silicates,  when  sftread  over  the  surface  of  fields, 
but,  if  burnt,  the  silica  becomes  insoluble.  Hence,  straw  should 
be  applied  without  change.  Its  organic  matter  is  also  put  to  use. 
Straw  spread  upon  meadows  for  grass  is  an  excellent  application. 

§  100.  Ashes  contain  a  large  number  of  fertilizing  elements;  in- 
deed it  may  be  presumed  that  whatever  an  ash  contains  performs 
something  in  the  economy  of  the  vegetable  which  yields  it. 


83  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   8UKVEY. 

The  ash  of  sea  weeds  is  the  kelp  of  commerce.  It  contains  pot- 
ash, soda,  lime,  silica,  sulphur,  chlorine,  iodine,  etc.  The  existence 
of  these  elements  in  marine  plants  throws  light  on  their  action  upon 
vegetation. 

Wood  ashes  contain,  among  other  ihmg^^  pearlash,  or  carbonate 
of  potash.  The  composition  of  ashes  depends  upon  the  tree  and 
the  part  burned ;  the  bark  furnishes  an  ash  whose  composition  dif- 
fers from  that  of  the  wood  or  the  leaves. 

The  ash  of  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  white  oak  contains  the  fol- 
lowing substances: 

SAPWOOD.   BAKK.   UEAETWOOD. 

Potash'    13.41  0.25  9.68 

Soda,    0.52  2.57  5.03 

Sodium,    2.78  0.08  0.39 

Chlorine 4.24  0.12  0.47 

Sulphuric  acid,   0.12  0.03  0.26 

Phos.  of  peroxide  of  iron,  lime  and 

magnesia,    ...32.25  10.10  13.30 

Carbonic  acid,    8.95  29.80  19.29 

Lime,  30.85  54.89  43.21 

Magnesia,    0.36  0.20  0.25 

Silica,    0.21  0.25  0.88 

Soluble  silica,    0.80  .25  0.30 

Organic  matter,    6.70  1.16  7.10 

The  tree  furnishing  the  ash  grew  upon  a  clay  soil  rich  in  lime. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  bark  is  much  richer  in  lime  than  the 
wood,  -while  the  wood  is  richer  in  phosphates;  and  tlie  richest  part 
of  the  wood  is  that  of  the  outside.  The  same  result  is  shown  in  the 
distribution  of  potash ;  the  outside  wood  contains  more  than  the 
heart  wood,  and  in  the  bark  it  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  quantityj 
only  0.25  per  cent.  These  are  leading  facts  in  the  distribution  of 
the  elements  of  growth  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  we  may  feel 
assured  that  it  is  not  an  accident  that  they  are  thus  distributed. 
It  is  probable  that  lime  distributed  to  the  outside  is  best  adapted 
to  the  protection  of  the  vegetable  tissues.  The  newest  parts,  as  the 
outside  wood,  derives  a  part  of  its  elements  from  the  inside,  espe- 
cially the  phosphates,  which  are  no  doubt  transfei-red  by  the  circu- 
lation. The  law  which  has  been  already  expressed,  holds  good  in 
all  the  correct  analyses  of  the  parts  of  trees;  their  distribution  is 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  83 

upward  and  outward,  tending  continually  to  the  new  parts  whicli 
are  being  developed. 

§  101.  The  ashes  of  peat  differ  in  composition  according  to  the 
nature  oi'  the  plant  from  which  peat  is  formed.  There  will  also  be 
changes  in  the  composition  of  peat  which  is  old,  when  compared 
with  a  new  growth  of  it. 

The  following  analj^sis  by  Johnson,  shows  the  general  composi- 
tion of  peat  ashes : 

Chloride  of  sodium,  0.41 

Phosphate  of  lime, 2.46 

Sulphate  of  lime, 18.66 

"           magnesia,    1.68 

Carbonate  and  silicate  of  magnesia,    6.32 

"                    "            potash  and  soda,    5.32 

"            alumina,    11.63 

Oxideofiron, 9.18 

Silica,     15.55 

Insoluble  matter,  sand,  &c., 7.94 

Carb.  acid,  coal,  etc.,  . , 10.85 

100.00 

In  this  sample  the  gypsum  is  much  greater  than  usual,  and  the 
silicate  of  alumina  is  foreign  matter,  as  alumnia  is  never  a  true  ash 
product. 

§  102.  On  reviewing  the  general  principles  which  are  set  forth 
in  the  preceding  account  of  fertilizers,  we  may  understand  that  it 
is  not  suflticient  to  apply  to  the  soil  fertilizers  in  their  simple  state^ 
and  at  landom,  provided  the  planter  determines  to  derive  from 
them  the  greatest  benefit.  We  are  unable  to  increase  their  power, 
but  their  elements  of  fertility  may  be  preserved  or  prolonged  by  a 
suitable  management,  which  in  reality  would  be  equivalent  to  an 
increase  of  power.  The  most  active  and  valuable  ones  require  the 
most  particular  attention.  Guano,  for  example,  requires  careful 
manipulation,  and  when  it  is  once  determined  how  this  volatile 
compound  is  to  be  treated,  it  furnishes  a  rule  for  others  whose  com- 
position is  closely  related  to  it. 

Of  the  different  fertilizers,  we  may  arrange  them  into  four 
orders. 


i 


84:  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

In  the  first,  we  may  place  those  which  contain  a  notable  per 
centage  of  ammonia,  in  such  a  state  of  combination  that  it  is  freely 
exhaled,  or  exists  in  a  volatile  condition. 

In  the  second,  tliose  which  by  chemical  changes  form  ammonia, 
and  which  also  become  volatile. 

In  the  third,  we  may  place  the  fixed  salts;  and 

In  the  fourth,  those  compounds  which  consist  of  carbonaceous 
matters,  and  possess  also  the  character  of  comparative  stability 
under  ordinary  conditions.  The  latter  order  is  well  adapted  to  a 
general  use  with  the  preceding,  either  as  an  absorbent  of  the  vol- 
atile matter,  especially  ammonia,  or  with  the  salts,  with  which  they 
form  combinations  consisting  of  an  oi'ganic  acid  and  a  mineral 
base. 

The  probability  is  that  the  best  results  are  secured  by  mixing 
our  organic  with  the  inorganic  in  every  instance.  By  adopting 
this  course,  the  time  when  soils  will  begin  to  exhibit  signs  of  ex- 
haustion will  be  far  in  the  future,  or  certainly  postponed  in- 
definitely. 


CHAPTER  X. 


The  quantity  or  ratio  of  the  inorganic  elements  in  a  plant  may  be  increased  by 
cultivation.  Source  of  nitrogen.  Specific  action  of  certain  manures,  particu- 
larly salts.  Farm  j-ard  manure  never  amiss.  Use  of  phos.  magnesia.  Special 
manure  sometimes  fails,  as  gypsum. 

§  103.  While  it  is  well  established  that  the  organs  of  plants 
possess  each  their  own  component,  inorganic  elements,  it  is  equally 
well  proved  that  their  quantity  may  be  increased  or  diminished  by 
modes  of  cultivation.  The  organs  still  maintain  their  diff'erenceB 
in  respect  to  the  ratio  of  the  component  elements  under  any  system 
of  culture. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  changes  which  may  be  produced  by 
modes  of  cultivation,  we  may  cite  wheat.     If,  for  example,  it  is 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  85 

inannred  with  the  ejecta  of  the  cow,  it  furnishes  a  smaller  propor- 
tion of  gluten  than  if  manured  with  fertilizers  richer  in  ammonia. 
When  manured  as  above,  the  berry  contained  11.95  parts  of  gluten, 
and  62.34  of  starch.  Wlien  manured  with  human  urine,  which  is 
rich  in  the  elements  of  ammonia,  it  yielded  35.1  of  gluten ;  nearly 
three  times  as  much  as  in  the  former  case.  Grluten  determines  the 
weight  of  the  grain,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  its  nse.  Tiie  flour, 
which  is  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  maccaroni,  must  be  rich 
in  gluten.  Certain  soils  produce,  without  fertilizers,  a  heavy  wheat 
rich  in  gluten.  This  is  a  fact  with  the  wheat  of  Stanly  county,  N.  C, 
which  weighs  68  lbs.  to  the  bushel,  probably  the  heaviest  wheat 
ever  sent  to  market. 

§  104.  The  important  principle  contained  m  the  foregoing  facts 
liave  a  practical  bearing;  they  determine  the  practicability  of  rais- 
ing a  crop  adapted  to  a  particular  use,  independent  of  the  influence 
of  climate,  and  hence  of  increasing  its  value. 

In  relation  to  the  subject  of  ammonia,  much  thought  lias  been 
given,  and  many  experiments  made  to  settle  the  question  of  its 
source.  As  nitrogen  forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  atmosphere 
it  was  natural  to  infer  that  the  atmosphere  might  furnish  this  ele- 
ment directly  to  the  leaves  or  to  some  other  part  of  the  plant. 
This  view  has  not  been  adopted,  and  it  is  moreover  well  settled 
that  ammonia  exists  in  the  air  in  small  quantities  and  is  dissolved  iii 
rain  water;  it  is  also  contained  in  fresh  fallen  snow,  but  notwith- 
standing its  presence  in  the  atmosphere,  it  is  essential  to  its  recep- 
tion in  the  plant  to  combine  it  with  an  organic  acid,  which  nature 
effects  in  the  soil,  which  contains  organic  matter,  in  the  condition 
of  acids,  as  the  cerenic  and  apocrenic. 

Certain  other  saline  manures  exercise  a  specific  action  upon 
crops.  Those  of  ammonia  are,  perhaps,  the  most  general  in  their 
effects;  all  crops  continue  to  grow  longer  under  the  influence  of 
these  salts,  or  continue  in  a  i;rowing  state  until  late  in  the  season. 
Nitrate  of  soda  has  a  similar  effect.  "With  respect  to  their  applica- 
tion to  certain  crops,  which  we  wish  to  have  ripened  within  a  cer- 
tain period,  as  tobacco^  for  example,  they  would  not  be  adapted  to 
it;  it  would  cause  the  plant  to  continue  growing  until  frost;  it 
would  be  in  the  unripened  state,  or  only  ripened  in  part;  and  hence 
the  tobacco  would  command  only  an  inferior  price  in  market. 


86  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVKY. 

§  105.  Certain  salts  promote  the  growtli  in  perfection  of  particu- 
lar parts  of  vegetables.  Thns  when  the  straw  of  wheat  or  vyv  is 
weak,  theory  would  lead  to  the  use  of  the  soluble  silicates  of  lime 
or  potash,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  silex  whore  it  is  required. 
The  practice  is  attended  with  good  results.  When  the  ear  is  not 
well  tilled,  the  phosphates  are  resorted  to,  as  it  is  here  that  this  salt 
is  deposited  in  the  greatest  quantify.  The  leaves  of  the  vine  are 
best  developed  by  carbonate  of  potash ;  and  the  phosphates  again 
develope  or  go  to  the  fruit. 

Other  fertilizers  seem  to  be  adapted  in  certain  conditions  at  least 
to  all  crojjs.  Farm-yard  manure  never  comes  amiss,  provided  it 
has"  been  subjected  to  such  physical  and  chemical  changes  whicli 
the  crop  requires.  It  is  not  always  proper  to  apply  it  fresh  or  in 
the  condition  of  long  manure.  Gypsum  is  specially  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  red  clover,  and  ashes  and  marl  will  bi'ing  up  white  clover 
in  places  whore  it  had  not  been  known  to  grow  perhaps  at  all. 

Phosphate  of  magnesia  has  been  praised  for  potatoes,  and  the 
super-phosphate  of  lime  is  the  best  dressing  for  turnips. 

But  even  the  foregoing  well  authenticated  facts  are  somewliat 
local ;  for  certain  reasons  not  well  ascertained,  some  of  the  striking 
effects  of  these  special  I'csalts,  do  not  occur  in  another  section  of  the 
country,  or  at  least  are  far  from  being  so  striking  It  is  never  pos- 
sible to  predict  the  effects  of  gypsum  on  crops,  though  its  proper- 
ties must  hold  good  everywhere ;  that  is,  must  always  act  as  an 
absorbent  of  ammonia  and  water,  but  still  it  is  said  to  fail  at  times 
as  a  fertilizer.  In  England  it  is  not  particularly  praised,  Avhile  in 
this  country  there  are  only  a  few  districts  wheie  it  is  not  attended 
with  benetit  to  the  crop.  jS^atural  fertilizers,  however,  do  not  stand 
alone  in  their  failures.  Those  manufactured  for  a  particular  end 
are  found  to  fail  frequently.  Failures  no  doubt  occur  by  a  misap- 
plication of  the  substance ;  it  may  be  given  in  excess  aiul  become 
a  destroyer.  It  may  fail  from  an  unfavorable  season,  and  may  also 
fail  from  adulteration  or  for  want  of  a  natural  purity  in  coniposi- 
tion  as  a  great  excess  of  inert  and  valueless  substance  with  which 
it  is  intermixed. 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


CHAPTER  XL 

On  the  periodical  increase  of  the  corn  plant.  The  white  flint,  together  with  the 
increase  of  leaves  and  other  organs.  The  proportions  of  the  inorganic  elements 
in  the  several  parts  of  their  composition.  The  quantitj'  of  inorganic  matter 
in  an  acre  of  corn  and  in  each  of  its  parts.  Remarks  upon  the  statistics  of 
composition. 

§  106.  The  changes  which  a  plant  undergoes  during  its  period 
of"  growtli  are  woi'tliy  of  attention.  For  the  puipose  ot  illustrating 
the  development  uf  vegetable  organs,  we  have  selected  the  Indian 
corn  or  maize;  and  as  the  growtli  of  the  foliage  exhibits  the  views 
we  wish  to  bring  out,  we  have  tabulated  the  weekly  increase  of 
the  leaves  in  weight,  and  the  amount  of  water  thej  contain,  together 
with  the  qnantit}'  of  ash  the  whole  weight  furnisheSo  The  obser- 
vations begin  in  July  and  are  continued  until  August  11 : 


time: 

JULY  5. 

JULY  12. 

JULY  18. 

JULY  29. 

AUGUST  4. 

AUGUST  11. 

Weight  in  grains, 

367 

698 

886 

2294 

2810 

1042 

Water, 

304- 

568 

869 

1835 

2179 

1227 

Ash, 

6.75 

756 

8.32 

41.58 

58.97 

30.59 

This  table  shows  the  rapid  increase  of  weight  in  the  leaves  from 
July  18  to  August  4,  after  which  the  leaves  rapidly  lose  their 
weight,  by  supplying,  no  doubt,  nutriment  to  the  corn,  which  is 
then  tilling  up.  There  is  in  most  organs  a  growth  which 
attains  its  maximum  at  a  certain  period,  when  it  seems  to  retro- 
grade. This  view,  however,  applies  only  to  the  subsidiary  organs 
Ail  the  energies  of  a  plant  are  concentrated  on  the  production  and 
pei'fection  of  seed.  The  stalks  of  corn  increase  in  about  the  same 
ratio  as  the  leaves. 

STALKS.  TIMK:   JULY5.        JULY  12.  JULY  18.  JULY  24.  AUG.  4.  AUG.  11. 

Weight  in  giaiiHS     100  1084         3041  5219         4597 

Water,  92  987  2671  4)25  3832 

Ash,  94  8         16.82        29.48        51.25 

§  107.  The  stalk  attains  its  maximum  growth  between  by  tiie 
4th  and  before  tlw?  ilth  of  August,  and  begins  to  yield  up  its  nu- 
triment to  tlie  ear,  which  is  rapidly  forming.     By  the  2od  of  the 


88  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURViiY. 

month,  a  week  later,  they  weigh  2,237  only.  In  the  selection  of 
specimens,  ic  was  attempted  to  employ  such  as  were  equally  ad- 
vanced and  of  equal  size,  as  possible. 

§  108.  The  increase  in  weight  of  the  white  flint  corn  during  pe- 
riods of  one  week  and  during  the  period  embraced  in  the  foregoing 
observations,  will  be  expressed  in  the  following  tables  and  remarks. 

On  the  28th  of  June  the  corn  was  18  inches  high,  and  had  increas- 
ed in  height  during  the  preceding  week  7^  inches : 

Average  weight  of  each  plant,    84.15  grs., 

Increase  in  weight,    62.05     " 

July  5th,  hight  26  inches;  increase  in  hight,  8  inches: 

Weight  of  one  plant, 237.5     grs., 

Increase  of  weight  during  the  week, 152.35     " 

Average  increase  of  one  plant  per  daj% 21.76     " 

July  12th,  hight  of  plants  35  inches;  increase  9  inches  : 

Weight  of  one  plant,     861.9     grs., 

Increase  per  week,   432.7      " 

"  day,    61.81    " 

July  19th,  hight  43  inches;  increase  in  hight  8  inches  ; 

Average  weight  of  each  plant,    875.48  grs., 

Increase  during  the  week,  177.19     " 

Increase  per  day,    25.31     " 

July  26th,  hight  49  inches;  increase  in  hight  6,  or  one  inch  per 
day :  " 

Average  weight  of  each  plant,   .   2039.       grs., 

Increase  per  week,    1191.6       " 

Increase  per  day,    170.22     " 

Increase  per  hour,    7.09     " 

August  2d,  hight  58  inches ;  increase  9  inches : 

Average  weight  of  each  plant,    3308.       grs. 

Increase  in  weight  per  week,    1269.         " 

Average  per  day, 181.         " 

I  Average  per  hour, 7.55     " 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  89" 

August  9th,  hight  65  inches ;  increase  during  the  week 7  inches: 

Average  weight  of  each  plant, 38.27  grs., 

Increase  during  the  week,  286.         " 

Increase  per  day,    11.92     " 

Increase  per  hour,    .49     " 

August  16th,  average  liight  72  inches;  increase  7  inches: 

Average  weight  of  each  plant, 6780       grs., 

Increase  of  weight  during  the  week, 2953         " 

Increase  per  day, 436         " 

Increase  per  hour, 18.16    " 

August  23rd,  average  increase  in  higlit  of  plants  for  the  week 
,76  inches ;  increase  in  hight  during  the  week  4  inches : 

Average  weight  of  each  plant,    8170.       grs., 

Increase  in  weight,    1389.         " 

Average  per  day,    198.         " 

**     per  hour,    8.27     " 

August  30th,  average  hight  78  inches;  increase  in  hight  during 
the  week  2  inches : 

Average  weight  of  each  plant,    10.580  grs., 

Increase  during  the  week, 2.409     " 

Increase  per  day,    344     " 

"      per  hour,    14.34       " 

September  6,  average  liight  of  each  plant,  78  inches.  No  in- 
crease in  hight  for  the  week: 

Average  weight  of  each  plant, 12.917  grs., 

Increase  during  the  week, ^ 2136.  " 

Increase  of  weight  per  day,    305.  " 

Increase  of  weight  per  hour,    12.72  " 

On  comparing  the  parts  of  the  plant  with  each  other  at  this 
stage  of  growth,  we  find  -they  hold  the  following  proportions  to 
each  other: 

6 


90 


NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   STJRVET. 


■WEIGHT. 

Tassel, 14V.98 

Upper  part  of  the  stalk,    1128.8 

Lower  part  of  the  stalk,    2084. 

Sheaths,    1239. 

Leaves,    1970. 

Eai  stalks,    1217. 

Husks, 2484. 

Kernels,    926. 

Cob, 1255. 


grs., 


2.29  per 

cent 

0.63 

11 

1.13 

>( 

1.42 

u 

Lost. 

.48 

ii 

1.65 

1( 

.488 

CI 

.354 

l( 

The  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  leaves  and  sheaths  at  this 
stage  of  growth  is  as  follows : 

iEATES.  &HEATn8  AND  HTTSKS. 

Potash,  10.15  8.76 

Soda, 22.13  19.68 

Lime,    3.38  1.20 

Magnesia, 2.38  2.02 

Earthy  and  alkaline  phosphates, 14.50  13.80 

Carbonic  acid,   3.50  4.14 

Silicic  acid,   36.27  38.10 

Sulphuric  acid,    5.84  6.36 

Chlorine,    1.63  4.34 

At  a  later  period,  that  of  October  18th,  when  the  corn  was  npe^ 
the  leaves  and  sheaths  were  composed  of: 

LEAVES,  SHEATHS- 

Potash, 8.33  7.48 

Soda, 8.52  12.44 

Lime, 4.51  2.13 

Magnesia, 0.86  0.79 

Phosphates,    6.85  9.75 

Silicic  acid, 58.65  51.25 

Carbonic  acid, 4.05  trace. 

Sulphuric  acid, 4.88  12.27 

Chlorine 2.66  2.96 


§  109.  The  stalks  of  the  period  were  composed  of  i 


NORTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  91 

STALES. 

Potash,    16.21 

Soda,    24.69 

Lime, 2.84 

Magnesia,    0.93 

Pliosphates, , 16.1-5 

Silicic  acid,    12.8.5 

Carbonic  acid,    .• 1.85 

Sulphuric  acid,    10.73 

Chlorine,   10.95 

The  phospliates  of  the  loaves  of  the  Octobei-'s  growtli  are  less 
than  in  those  of  September  6.  The  amonnt  of  the  alkalies  have 
apparently  diminished,  though  it  is  possible  that  comparisons  maj 
be  fallacious,  seeing  that  the  results  are  obtained  from  the  analysis; 
of  different  plants,  growing  also  on  different  hills,  and  may  prove- 
to  be  due  to  other  causes  than  those  connected  with  the  distributioni 
of  inorganic  matter  by  the  influence  of  the  organs.  Our  theory  is,.. 
with  respect  to  the  distribution  of  the  inorganic  matter,  that  the 
leaves  furnish  to  the  grain  a  part  of  their  store,  or  that  it  i&  transr'- 
fei'red  from  the  leaf  to  the  grain. 

The  husks  are  composed  of: 

mrsKS,. 

Potash, S.51, 

.Soda,    9.82 

Lime, 0.45 

Magnesia, .,.. . .     0.(^7' 

Phcsphates, 2612©" 

Silicic  acid, 47.6© 

Sulphuric  acid, .  .      6.6.7 

Chlorine, S.Sft 

Carbonic  acid, trace. 

For  feeding  stock,  horses^  caws,  etc-;,  the  advantages  of  ane  organ 
over  the  other  are  not  very  great,  so  far  as  the  inoi'ganic  matter  is- 
concerned.     The  silicic  acid  ©i:  silica  is -the  greatest  in  the  husks, . 
w^iich  may  be  regarded  as  the  useless  part ;  but  it  happens  that 
the  phospha'es  are  greater  in  the  husks  than  the  leaves  at  this  • 
stage  ;  but  again,  the  potash,  and  soda  are  greatest  in  the  leaves. . 

In  the  sheath  and  leaves,  taken  at  the  same  date,  Sept.  6,  there  ■ 
are  but  slight  differences  ia  composition  in  the  two  organs,  leaf . 
and  husks.  A  comparisoa  of  the  composition  of  the  leaves  and. 
the  grain  of  the.  white  flint  corn  of  August  22 : 


92  ,  NOETH-CAEOLINA    GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

LEAVES.  GKAIIJ. 

Potnsh,  12.76  23.92 

Soda,    8.51  22.59 

Lime,    6.09  0.16 

Magnesia,   1.25  2.41 

Alkaline  and  earthy  phosphates,   19.25  35.50 

Silica,    50.55  9.50 

Sulphuric  acid,    4.18  4.38 

Chlorine,    9.76  0.40 

Tlie  alkaline  aiid  earthy  phosphates,  potash  and  soda,  exist  in 
large  proportions  in  the  grain,  while  the  silica  is  reduced  to  a 
niiniirnim,  and  is  confined  to  the  cuticle. 

§  110.  Analysis  of  the  grain  and  cob  of  the  8  rowed  yellow  corn 
of  the  same  ear : 

GRAIN.  COB. 

Potash,   27.35  37.85 

Soda,  5.79  1.83 

Lime,    trace.  0.24 

Magnesia,  trace.  0.53 

Earthj^  and  alkaline  phosphates,    52.75  36.57 

Chlorine,    4.10  2.95 

Sulphuric  acid,    3.48  9.20 

Silex,    1.73  10.76 

Per  centage  of  ash, 62         .  .40 

« 

As  it  regards  tlie  value  of  the  cob  for  nutriment  so  far  as  its  in- 
organic matter  is  concerned,  it  is  plain  that  it  has  a  certain  value 
aiid  should  not  be  lost.  Cob  ashes  are  known  to  be  rich  in  the  al- 
kalies even  when  guided  only  by  taste ;  but  at  this  stage  the  potash 
amounts  to  37  per  cent,  ana  the  phosphates  to  36  per  cent,  and  tlie 
silica  to  only  ten  per  cent.  But  the  per  centage  of  ash  is  small  in 
the  cob,  scarcely  amounting  in  any  case  to  more  than  one-half  of 
one  per  cent. 

§  111.  The  husks  of  this  variety  of  corn  and  which  belong  to  the 
eame  stage  of  growth,  are  composed  of: 

Potash,    21.85 

Soda,    2.04 

Carb.  of  lime,   0.27 

Magnesia^    0.23 

Phos.  of  lime,  magnesia  and  iron,    29.43 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   (^EOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


93 


Chlorine,  1.11 

Sulphuric  acid,   11.11 

Silica,     32.13 

Fj'oui  observation  and  experiment  it  appears  liiglilj  probable, 
that  tiie  8  rowed  yellow  corn  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  for  feed- 
ing }  roperties.     Its  parts  are  all  of  them  rich  in  inorganic  matter. 

§  112.  Upon  an  acre  of  corn  we  raise  about  18,700  plants.  These 
plants  will  contain  46G.S0  lbs.  of  inorganic  matter.  This  inorganic 
matter  will  be  distributed  to  the  parts  of  plants  in  the  following 
amounts: 

Tassels,    64.239  grs., 

Stalks 525.525  " 

Sheaths, 594.962  " 

Leaves,    1.195.845  " 

Silk.s,    25.284  " 

Husks,     434.091  " 

Cobs,    264.600  " 

Grain,     480.690  " 

3.585.036  grs.,=7468.82  oz.=466.801bs. 
Of  this  quantity  the  leaves  and  sheaths  will  contain  of: 

LEAVES.  SHEATHS 

Silica,    82.681  pounds,  39.667  pounds, 

Earthy  phosphates, 29.273  "  7.546 

Lime,    9.400  "  1.581 

Magnesia,    1.910  "  0.589 

Potash,    19.704  "  5.571 

Soda,   13.142  "  9.262 

Chlorine,    15.072  "  2.202 

Sulphuric  acid,    6.461  "  8.928 


The  weiglit  of  the  inorganic  matter  of  the  grain  and  cob  will  be 


Silica,     5.939 

Earthy  and  alkaline  phosphates,    22.187 

Lime,   0.187 

Magnesia,    1.506 

Potash,     , 14.950 

Soda,  , 14.118 


COB. 

4.678 
8.229 
0.103 
0.309 
12.315 
2.034 


^  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

Chlorine,  0.309  0.045 

Sulphuric  acid,    2.740         0.118 

The  stalks  of  one  acre  will  contain  : 

Silica, 8.789 

Earthy  phosphates,    10.362 

Lime,   J....  1.928 

Magnesia,    0. 640 

Potash,    11.087 

Soda, 17.094 

Chlorine,   7.491 

Sulphuric  acid, 7.382 

64.773  pounds. 

§  113.  The  several  amounts  of  the  inorganic  elements  will  stand 
as  follows : 

LBS.   OZ.   DECIMAL  PAKTS  OP  AN  OUNCE. 

Silica,    173.12.496 

Earthy  phosphates,  etc.,    93.  3.984 

Lime,    13.  9.248 

Magnesia, 5.  0.752 

Potash,    66.2.944 

Soda,    61.15.184 

Chlorine,    28.7.328 

Sulphuric  acid,    29.11.696 

471.15.632 

S  114.  The  foreffoino;  statistics  of  the  corn  or  maize  elements 
show  that  it  is  an  exhausting  crop.  This  is  agreeable  to  the  opin- 
ions of  the  best  informed  farmers. 

The  maize  crop  is  remarkable  for  bearing  high  culture  Mnthont 
danger  of  an  excessive  growth  of  stalk  or  leaves.  In  this  respect 
it  is  quite  different  from  wheat  or  oats.  The  rich  lands  of  the 
eastern  counties  of  North-Carolina  produce  great  crops  of  maize, 
but  when  wheat  is  put  upon  them,  the  crop  consists  of  straw  instead 
of  grain,  M'hich  is  even  of  a  poor  quality,  so  far  as  it  is  produced. 

Again,  the  foregoing  statistics  show  the  actual  amount  which 
each  part  contains,  and  what  it  removes  from  the  soil.     An  infer- 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURYEY.  ^O 

ence  from  all  these  facts  is,  that  it  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  the 
phosphates  upon  an  exhausted  soil  to  restore  it  to  fertility ;  the 
quantity  of  potash,  soda,  etc.,  which  may  be  and  probably  is  com- 
bined in  part  with  silica,  shows  that  the  soluble  silicates  will  be 
required  in  the  list  of  fertilizers.  Plants  require  foliage  elements, 
as  well  as  grain  or  seed  elements  j  for  undoubtedly  the  perfection 
of  the  seed  is  dependent,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  perfection 
of  the  foliage.  This  precedes,  or  is  developed  first,  and  when  we 
iind  it  green  and  luxuriant,  we  predict  a  fine  crop  of  grain. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Value  of  foliage  for  animal  consumption  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  two  differ- 
ent classes  of  bodies:  heat  producing  and  flesh  producing  bodies.  These  two 
classes  are  the  proximate  organic  bodies,  and  are  ready  formed  in  the  vegetable 
organs.  Proximate  composition  illustrated  by  two  varieties  of  maize.  Their 
comparative  value.  Analysis  of  several  other  varieties  of  maize  for  the  pur- 
pose of  illustrating  difference  of  composition  as  well  as  their  different  values. 
Composition  of  timothy,  etc. 

§  115.  The  true  value  of  foliage  is  determined  from  the  quantity 
of  the  proximate  elements  of  certain  organic  products  developed  or 
produced  in  the  organs  and  seeds  of  many  plants,  particularly  those 
which  are  in  common  use  for  feeding  animals.  Of  these  elements 
starch,  sugar,  gum,  dextrine,  gluten,  legnmen,  casein,  albumen, 
are  the  most  important.  The  list  is  naturally  divisible  into  two 
classes.  The  four  first  form  a  class  which  have  been  called  respira- 
tory elements,  and  furnish  the  body  with  heat  and  fat;  they  are 
destitute  of  of  nitrogen.  The  remainder,  of  which  gluten  stands  at 
the  head,  are  the  flesh  and  strength  producing  elements,  and  are 
known  to  contain  nitrogen,  and  hence  are  sometimes  called  nitro- 
genous elements.  The  first  class  meet  a  special  want  in  the  animal 
economy,  that  of  supplying  it  with  heat,  and  when  they  are  taken 
in  larger  quantities  than  the  system  requires,  they  accumulate 
around  certain  parts  in  the  form  of  fat. 


W^  NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

It  is  evident  that  as  the  economy  of  the  animal  system  requires 
not  only  heat  but  sti-ength  and  muscle  or  flesh,  and  as  these  are 
furnished  from  plants  in  the  lirst  place,  that  any  given  plant  is  val- 
uable for  food  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  w^hich  these  two  classes 
of  elements  are  contained  in  the  vegetable  or  which  it  can  furnish. 
In  order  to  determine  the  value  of  a  plant,  then,  these  difi'erent 
classes  and  individuals  of  the  class  are  separated  or  isolated  from 
their  natural  combinations,  or  in  other  words  they  are  analyzed. 
As  an  example  we  may  take  the  composition  of  maize,  which  will 
show  the  proximate  composition  of  the  grain.  Its  ultimate  analj^- 
sis  would  be,  resolve  the  proximate  bodies  into  the  elements,  car- 
bon, oxygen,  dydrogen  and  nitrogen.  The  proximate  elements 
exist  ready  formed  in  the  grain,  leaf  or  stem,  and  they  are  separa- 
ted from  the  fibre  or  cellular  tissue  by  water,  alcohol,  ether,  weak 
alkaline,  solutions,  etc.  The  grain,  then,  in  its  proximate  elements 
of  ready  formed  bodies,  contains: 

S  BOWED  WHITE  FLIST.  WHITE  KESXrCKT  DENT  COBN. 

Starch,    57. 4Y  50.92 

Oil,    2.55  0.64 

Dextrine  or  gi3m,    4.01  3.08 

Sugar  and  extractive, 13.21  13.80 

Albumen,    2.27  4.44 

Casein,    0.39  0.80 

Gluten, 1.67  0.72 

Fibre 6.07  9.70 

Water,    11.46  12.22 

The  heat  producing  bodies  in  the  two  varieties  are : 

rUNT.        KENTUCKT   CORN. 

Starch,   67.47  50.92 

Oil,    2.55  0.64 

Gum,     4.01  3.08 

Sugar,    13.21  13.80 

77.24         68.42  Heat  and  fat  producing  bodies. 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  W 

"While  the  flesh  producing  are  in  the 

FLINT   COUN.  KENTUCKY   COKN. 

Albumen,    2.27  4.44 

Casein,    0.89  0.80 

Gluten 1.67  0.72 

4.33  5.9G 

In  the  Kentucky  corn  the  flesh  producing  hodies  exceed  tliose  in 
Flint  corn. 

To  give  another  analysis  of  corn  for  the  purpose  of  showing  a 
still  greater  difference  in  the  varieties  often  cultivated,  we  select 
the  small  blue  corn  used  tor  parching.     It  contains: 

Starch,    42.56 

Oil, 5.30 

Sugar  and  extractive,    15.32 

Gum,    7.52 

Albumen,    5.00 

Casein, 2.04 

Gluten,    4. 78 

Fibre,* 8.56 

Soluble  in  fibre  by  potash,    8.55 

The  line  parching  pi-operties  of  this  corn  are  due  to  the  large 
quantity  of  oil  present  in  the  grain.  Another  variety  of  iwp  corn, 
the  lady  linger,  contains  nearly  7  per  cent,  of  oil. 

The  sweet  corn  is  still  more  remai-kable  in  its  composition,  thus 
it  contains: 

Starch,    11.60 

Oil,    3.60 

Sugar,    6.62 

Dextrine  or  gum,  24.82 

Extract,   8.00 


*  Fibre  is  the  hard  stringy  part  of  vegetables;  it  is  wood  or  the  fibre  of  flax; 
cotton  lint  is  the  purest  form  of  fibre  ;  bruise  or  beat  wood  or  straw  or  grain,  dis- 
solve out  by  water,  ether,  alcohol  and  a  weak  solution  of  pearlash  all  that  can  be 
and  the  part  remaining  is  fibre ;  it  exists  in  the  excrements  of  cattle  and  horses, 
and  forms  much  of  their  bulk. 


03  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY, 

Gluten, 4.62 

Albumen,    14.30 

Casein,    5. 84 

Fibre, 11.24 

Water,  10.81 

The  starch  in  this  variety  is  reduced  to  a  mini mnm  qnantity,  and 
the  gnm  or  dextrine  is  increased  to  the  maxitnnm  known  in  maize. 
Tlie  gura,  no  doubt,  replaces  in  part  the  starcli,  and  it  is  this  ele- 
ment which  causes  the  great  shrinkage  in  the  kernel,  from  which 
we  should  very  naturally  infer  that  the  corn  was  gathered  in  an 
unripe  condition.  This,  however,  is  not  the  fact.  But  the  sweet 
corn  is  eminent  for  its  flesh  producing  elements  when  it  is  seen  to 
contain  14  per  cent,  of  albumen  and  5  per  cent,  of  casein. 

§  116.  The  value  of  the  corn  leaf,  or  fodder,  as  it  is  called,  is 
more  accui-ately  ascertained  by  submitting  it  to  an  organic  proxi- 
mate analysis.  When  thus  treated  timothy  and  corn  leaf  are  found 
to  be  coin  posed  of: 

TIMOTHT.  CORN   LEAF. 

Fibre,    68.14  60.00 

Wax, 2.80  undetermined. 

Sugar  extract  and  dextrine, 8.20  10.00 

Albumen, 1.89               0.22 

Casein,    2.34               1.60 

Water,    12.30  10.17 

The  insoluble  fibre  makes  the  bulk  of  the  leaf,  and  serves  in  the 
animal  economy  to  fill  up  space,  or  give  a  proper  degree  of  tension 
to  the  membranes.  The  albumen  and  casein  ai-e  nearly  as  large 
in  corn  leaf  as  in  the  best  of  grasses.  The  red  top,  a  favorite  hay, 
is  composed  of: 

Fibre,    65.00 

Wax,    11.62 

Resin,    3.08 

E.Ktvact  and  sugar,    I). 00 

xUbumen,    1.49 

Casein,     « 1.80 

Water, - 10.00 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY.  '  mf 

§  117.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  insoluble  matter,  or  fibre,  in 
the  three  kinds  in  the  above  examples,  timothy,  red  top  and  corn 
leaf,  are  really  the  same,  or  nearly  so.  All  the  other  bodies,  classed 
as.  n/iitritim  and  fat  jproclucing ^  make  up  tlie  remainder.  They  dif- 
fer in  quantity  in  these  individual  specimens,  yet,  it  is  probable, 
that  for  feeding  stock,  as  they  generally  grow,  sometimes  on  ricli 
and  sometimes  on  poor  soil,  they  cannot  differ  essentially.  One, 
in  its  general  run,  will  support  as  much  stock  as  the  other,  for  it 
will  be  observed  that  cultivation,  or  no  cultivation,  changes  the 
character  of  the  crop.  If,  however,  we  compare  the  toregoing 
compositions  with  another  species,  which  grows  naturally  on  a  cold 
wet  soil  we  shall  perceive  a  great  difference. 

For  example,  a  cai'ex  (a  sw\amp  grass)  collected  just  before  it 
was  to  blossom  was  found  to  be  composed  of: 

Fibre,    86.20 

Wax,    2.00 

Albumen,    2.84 

Casein, , trace. 

Resin,    0.47 

Extract  and  sugar,    6.60 

The  greatest  part  of  this  grass  is  nnnutritious  fibre,  still  it  is  not 
deficient  in  albumen,  but  both  classes  of  bodies  are  reduced  to  a 
low  per  centage.  We  find  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  the  heat  and 
flesh  producing  bodies  combined. 

Composition  of  the  common  garden  pea,  rice  and  wheat,  so  far 
as  their  proximate  organic  elements  are  concerned  : 

PKA.  KICE.  -WHEAT. 

Water,     14  13  15 

Starch,    42  70  42 

Sugar  and  gum,    6  4  9 

Nitrogenous  substances,    24  7  15 

Oil 2  1  2 

Woody  fibre,   9  4  15 

Ash,    3  1  2 

100  100  100 

Rice  contains  a  lai-ger  amount  of  stalk  than  wheat  or  corn,  but 
in  nitrogenous  substances  it  is  less  than  one-half  of  that  in  wheat, 
and  in  the  pea  they  exceed  the  rice  more  than  three  times. 


100  NOETH-CAEOLINA    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Composition  of  tuberous  plants  with  respect  to  their  nutritive  elements.     Irish 
potatoe.     Sweet  potatoe.     Their  nutritive  values  compared. 

§  nS.  The  family  of  vegetables  which  rank  next  in  nutritive 
value  to  the  cereals  are  the  tuber  bearing  plants,  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  turnips,  etc.  They  owe  their  value  mostly  to  the  presence 
of  the  same  heat  and  flesh  producing  bodies  as  the  grains.  The 
inorganic  elements  are  the  same  as  in  the  cereals  and  grasses,  but 
tlieir  proportions  differ  somewhat  from  tliem.  The  asli  of  the  mer- 
cer potatoe,  which  is,  in  general  repute,  is  composed  of: 

MEECEB  POTATOE. 

Silica,    4.40 

Earthy  and  alkaline  phosphates,  consisting  of  lime, 

magnesia  and  iron,    39.50 

Lime, ! 0.15 

Magnesia,    0.80 

Potash,    14.20 

Soda,    24.1)2 

Sulphuric   acid,    6.25 

Carbonic  acid trace. 

A  carious  fact  which  we  brought  out  in  the  analysis  of  the  pota- 
toes is  the  difference  in  the  proportion  of  both  water  and  ash  of  the 
ends,  and  besides  the  rose  end,  if  planted,  will  form  potatoes  earlier 
than  the  heel  end.     They  are  composed  of: 

EOSF.  END.  HEEL  END. 

Water,    83.83  75.17 

Dry  matter,    16.16  24.82 

Ash,    0.72  0.43 

§  119.  The  proximate  organic  analysis  of  the  tuber  of  the  mercer 
gives  us  more  information,  as  it  regards  its  nutritions  qualities.  It 
contains: 

Starch,    0.71 

Fibre,    5.77 

Gluten,   0.20 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  101 

Fatty  matter,    0.08 

Albumen,      0.24 

Casein,    0.50 

Dextrine,     0.72 

Sugar  and  extract,    3. 93 

The  water  of  the  potatoe  amounts  to  about  80  per  cent.  The 
starch  is  less  in  this  sample  of  mercer  than  in  the  earl_y  Jnne,  which 
contains  13.37  per  cent.  As  it  regards  flesh  producing  bodies  all 
the  potatoes  rank  low. 

§  120.  The  follow  ing  analysis  of  the  sweet  potatoe  will  enable 
the  reader  to  compai-e  it  with  the  Irish  as  an  article  of  food,  partic- 
ularly with  regard  to  its  flesh  producing  qualities.  The  ash  is  com- 
posed of: 

_            •   Silica, 1.8.5 

Earthy  and  alkaline  phosphates,    22.10 

Carbonate  of  lime,    0  60 

Magnesia,     0.50 

Potash,     49.36 

Soda,    5.02 

Sulphuric  acid,    1.20 

Chlorine,    4.09 

Carbonic  acid,    15.72 

98.91 
The  tuber  co'itains: 

Water 69.51 

Dry  matter,   30.48 

Ash, 1.09 

§  121.  The  proximate  organic  analysis  gave: 

8WEET  POTATOE.  TURMPS, 

Starch, 19.95  7 

Sugar  and  extract,    5. SO  2 

Dextrine,    0.75 

Fibre,     ...      1.85  2 

Matter  dissolved  by  potash 2.10  ^ 

Albumen,     5.90}-  li 

Ca.sein,    1.03  J 

A  body  that  resembles  balsam,    0.22  1  qH 

Water,    96.56  86 


102  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  foregoing  analyses  serve  to  confirm  or  rather  to  agree  with  the 
common  opinion,  that  the  sweet  potatoes  rank  considerably  higher 
in  the  scale  of  nutriment  than  the  Irish;  they  furnish  more  of  the 
flesli  producing  bodies  ;  they  contain  less  water.  Both  are  rich  in 
potash.  The  per  centage  of  ash  appears  low,  but  in  both  it  is  ex- 
tremel}'-  fusible  and  difficult  to  obtain  in  a  pure  condition  for  weigli- 
imr,  as  it  is  very  liable  to  be  caustic.  The  ash  of  tlie  leaves  and 
stems  is  composed  of: 

Silica,    23.60 

Earthy  phosphates, 28.57 

Carbonate  of  lime,    15.00 

Magnesia,     none. 

_  Potash,     18.51 

"  Soda,    9.46 

Sulphuric  acid,  2.78 

Chlorine, 2.09 

Per  cent,  of  ash  in  leaves,    2.63 

"             "           stems,   1.73 

The  sweet  potatoe  compared  with  the  turnip  used  so  largely  for 
fattening  stock  in  England,  is  far  superior  in  every  point  of  view. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Composition  of  the  ash  of  fruit  trees;  as  the  peach,  apple,  pear,  Catavcba  grape. 
Amount  of  carbon  or  pure  charcoal  which  some  of  the  hard  woods  give  by 
ignition  in  closely  covered  crucibles. 

§  122.  Persons  who  cultivate  fruit  trees  may  wish  to  know  the 
composition  of  the  inorganic  matter  or  ash  M^Wch  the  different 
parts  furnish.  The  following  analysis  will  fulfil  in  part,  at  least, 
tlieii"  wishes.  The  peach  being  a  very  important  fruit  tree  in  this 
State,  is  selected  from  among  many  which  have  been  made.  The 
ash  of  the  parts  of  the  peach  is  composed  as  follows: 


•WOOD. 

LEATES. 

r.ii 

12.41 

11.15 

O.IG 

0.36 

1.51 

12.12 

22.20 

14.77 

6.40 

8.00 

0.32 

2.47 

26.1i> 

10.44 

1.34 

3.15 

1.35 

6.42 

4.48 

NOKTH-CAEOLIlSrA    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  lOi 

BAr.K. 

Potash,    2.20 

Soda,    

Chlorine  of  sodium,    0.04 

Sulphuric  acid,    4.19 

Lime, '.  42.17 

Magnesia,    2.10 

Phosphate  peroxide  of  iron,  0.45 

Phosphate  of  lime,    9.79 

Phosphate  of  magnesia,    ...  0.51 

Silica,    4.15 

Coal,    

In  the  foi-egoing  analysis  tlie  carbonic  acid  M'as  undetermined. 
It  appears  from  the  analysis  that  sulphates,  gypsum  probablj^,  will 
liave  good  effects  upon  the  peach  tree.  The  loaves  in  a'nother 
analysis  made  in  July,  gave: 

FEACU  LEAVES. 

Potash, 14.28 

Soda,   21.22 

Lime, 16.22 

Magnesia,    5.90 

Phosphate,    11.60 

Sulphuric  acid,  4.42 

Chlorine,   5.12 

Carbonic  acid,    14.30 

The  pits  of  a  peach  are  rich  in  lime,  phosphate  of  lime  and  silica. 
Lime  must  hold  an  important  place  as  a  fertilizer  for  the  peach 
tree,  provided  we  attempt  to  fulfil  the  indications  furnished  by  the 
composition  of  leaves,  wood  and  bark.  The  alkalies,  potash  and 
soda,  are  also  to  be  supplied.  Ashes,  however,  will  supply  all  its 
wants. 

§  123.  Composition  of  the  leaves  of  the  pear  and  apple  tree  at 
the  time  when  the  flowers  had  just  fallen  : 

APPLE  TKEE  LEAVES.      PEAR  TREE  LEAVES. 

Potash, 27.17  18.95 

Soda,     ' 11.83  15.19 

Lime,    3.38                           4.71 

Magnesia, 2.74                           4.50 

Chlorine,      0.79  undetermined. 

Phosphates, 26.60  25.05 


104  NORTn-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

Sulphuric  acid,    10.12  undetermined. 

Silica,   4.65  1.75 

Carbonic  acid,    ....  55  11.56 

Both  the  apple  and  pear  leaves  are  rich  in  alkalies  as  well  as 
phosphates.  Whether  an  analysis  in  September  would  furnish 
similar  results  is  donl)tfnl,  as  it  is  believed  that  there  may  be  a 
transference  of  these  bodies  to  the  matui'ing  fruit. 

§  124.  Analysis  of  the  ash  of  the  leaves  of  the  Catawba  grape, 
irathered  June  2d  : 

Potash, 18.39 

Soda 9.69 

Lime, 4.39 

•  Magnesia,    1.74 

Phosphates,    32.95 

Sulphuric  acid,    ._. .    .. ■. 2.09 

Silica, 29  65 

Chlorine, 0.74 

Carbonic  acid, 3.05 

Ash  of  the  wood, .' 0.98 

At  this  pei'iod  of  the  year  the  leaf  is  rich  in  phosphates  and 
alkalies.  It  is  well  known  that  bones  and  alkalies  are  among  the 
best  fertilizers  for  the  vine. 

§  125.  The  ash  of  wood,  it  is  shown,  differs  in  the  proportions  of 
organic  matters.  Thej-  differ  also,  in  quaiitity  of  carbon  or  char- 
coal the  wood  furnishes.  Thus,  beech  wood  gives  17.16  per  cent, 
of  charcoal.     Deducting  its  ash,  it  leaves  16.94  as  pure  charcoal. 

The  iron  wood  gives  16.21.  Deducting  ash,  it  leaves  15.91. 
The  broad  leaved  laurel  gives  only  7.30;  and  deducting  ash,  6.60. 
The  wood  is  very  compact. 

The  chestnut  gives  9.75;  ash  9.27. 

The  v.-hite  elm  gives  15.84  per  cent  of  coal,  minus  ash;  leaves 
15.04. 

The  black  birch  gives  16.01  charcoal,  minus  ash,  equals  15.96. 

The  pear  tree  has  9.79  per  cent,  of  coal,  and  the  apple  15.90; 
abstracting  the  ash  of  the  latter,  it  is  reduced  to  15.70. 

Fi'oni  the  foregoing,  it  appears  that  the  quantity  of  cai'bon  or 
coal  which  the  hard  woods  furnish,  rarely  exceeds  17  per  cent,,  and 
this  is  reduced  bv  extractinoj  the  ash. 


NORTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   STIRVEY.  105 


CHAPTER  XY. 

Nitrogenous  fertilizers  most  suitable  for  the  cereals.  Correlation  of  means  and 
ends  which  meet  in  fertilizers.  The  final  end  of  nitrogenous  bodies.  The 
power  to  store  up  or  consume  fertilizers  modified  by  age,  exercise  and  tempera- 
ture. Error  in  cattle  husbandry.  Crops  containing  the  largest  amount  of 
nutriment.  Weights  of  crops,  etc.  Indian  corn  and  turnips.  Sweet  potatoes. 
The  produce  of  an  acre  of  cabbage,  etc.  Cultivation  of  fruit  trees — trimming 
and  protection. 

§  126.  As  those  substances  are  the  most  suitable  for  fertilizers, 
especially  for  the  cereals,  which  contain  the  most  nitrogen,  so,  those 
containing  this  element  are  the  most  suitable  food  for  animals;  and 
as  none  of  the  cereals  can  be  grown  without  this  element,  so  ani- 
mals cannot  be  sustained  unless  it  forms  a  part  of  their  food.  There 
is,  therefore,  a  correlation  of  means  and  ends  existing  in  the  estab- 
lished order  of  things  between  what  plants  and  animals  require  for 
sustenance.  In  the  first  case,  it  would  seem  that  the  nitrogenous 
compounds  are  secondary  necessities,  while  in  the  latter  they  are 
primary,  or  have  immediate  reference  to  the  characteristics  of  the 
class  of  beings  by  whom  they  are  required.  They  are  more  essen- 
tially the  force  creating  elements,  and  are  designed  to  be  expended 
for  this  purpose,  and  never  to  accumulate  beyond  the  creation  of 
the  parts  which  are  the  seat  of  the  force,  while  'in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  they  accumulate  and  are  not  consumed  in  the  performance 
of  any  of  its  functions.  Gluten,  a  nitrogenous  element,  and  starch, 
a  heat  producing  element,  accumulate  in  the  grain.  There  they 
remain  until  on  being  received  into  the  animal  structure ;  the  lat- 
ter is  expended  in  developing  heat,  the  former  in  motion  or  exer- 
cise of  the  muscular  organs. 

§  127.  The  final  end,  then,  of  furnishing  nitrogenous  bodies  to 
growing  vegetables,  is  to  supply  necessities  which  the  -nature  and 
construction  of  animals  demand ;  and  herein  is  a  broad  distinction 
between  the  two  kingdoms — accumulation  in  one,  waste  in  the  other, 
or  a  consumption  of  its  own  organs  in  animals,  requiring  therefore 
'Constant  renewal  to  supply  the  place  of  the  wasted  tissues  which, 
have  been  expended  in  the  development  of  force. 

In  the  animal  economy  the  heat  producing  bodies,  starchy  gum, 
•oUcmd  suga/r,  cannot  be  substituted  for  the  flesh  and  .force  produe- 


106  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKV15T. 

iiig  bodies,  gluten,  albumen  and  fibrin  or  casein ;  their  functions 
being  totally  different.  A  dog  cannot  live  on  pure  starch  or  sugar ; 
neither  could  his  life  be  sustained  on  pure  fibrin.  There  is  always 
a  mixture  of  these  bodies  in  all  kinds  of  food  as  prepared  by  the 
organic  bodies. 

Wheat,  Indian  corn,  rye,  etc.,  have  been  shown  to  consist  of  a 
number  of  elements  belonging  to  each  of  the  class  whose  functions 
in  the  animal  economy  have  been  stated.  Any  of  the  cereals  will 
sustain  life,  as  they  furnish  both  heat  and  flesh.  Rice  contains  less 
of  the  flesh  producing  elements  than  wheat.  Indian  corn  by  itself 
is  probably  the  best  life  sustaining  body  of  this  class. 

§  128.  The  ability  or  power  of  the  animal  machine  to  consume 
and  store  up  elements  is  modified  by  exercise  and  age.  The  grow- 
ing animal  only  accumulates  as  it  is  necessary  ;  it  is  a  law  that  the 
young  should  attain  the  size  of  the  species ;  so  in  passing  from  the 
embryo  to  the  adult  state,  consumption  falls  short  of  accumulation, 
when  the  adult  s'cate  is  attained  accumulation  is  no  longer  necessary^ 
and  the  amount  of  food  taken  has  to  be  adjusted  to  the  preservation 
of  the  balance  between  the  food  eaten  and  the  forces  which  con- 
sume it.  Exercise  increases  consumption,  a  fact  established  by 
numerous  experiments  made  with  healthy  animals.  This  is  an  im- 
portant consideration  when  applied  to  the  fattening  of  animals. 
"When  they  are  allowed'  to  run  at  large  and  exercise  at  will,  or  even 
subjected  to  such  an  amount  ot  exercise  as  may  be  required  ta 
feed,  the  accumulation  of  fat  is  slower,  and  the  quantity  of  food  is 
lef^s,  which  is  necessary  to  reach  that  state  of  obesity  required  for  the 
stall ;  a  larger  amount  of  food  is  necessarily  consumed  than  is  essen- 
tial to  it  when  the  animal  is  still  and  performs  no  more  exercise 
than  health  demands. 

In  illustration  of  the  foregoing  statement,  it  has  been  determined 
by  experiment  that  where  20  sheep  were  allowed  to  run  at  large 
in  an  open  field,  they  consumed  19  lbs.  of  turnips  each  day  for  3 
successive  winter  months ;  they  gained  during  the  time  of  trial  512 
pounds.  Twenty  other  sheep  kept  for  the  same  time  in  a  shed, 
and  upon  an  average  consumed  15  pounds  of  turnips  per  day,  and 
increased  in  weight  t90  pounds.  In  addition  to  the  turnips  both 
flocks  were  fed  half  a  pound  of  linseed  cake  and  half  a  pint  of  bar- 
ley, but  from  inclination  the  enclosed  flock  consumed  one-third  less- 
linseed  cake  than  the  out  door  flock.  The  increase  in  the  confined 
flock  was  greater,  and  also-  the  consumption  of  food  less. 


NORTH-CAKGLmA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVEY.  107 

Protection  from  cold  weather  is  another  way  of  increasing  weiglit 
by  the  use  of  less  food.  Those  elements  which  ar^e  burnt  in  the 
system  for  the  purpose  of  developing  heat,  must  be  provided  in 
larger  quantities  and  proportionate  to  the  severity  of  the  cold  to 
which  they  are  exposed.  The  starch,  oil,  sugar,  etc.,  is  consumed 
for  the  generation  of  heat,  which  would  be  deposited  in  fat  if  the 
medium  in  which  they  are  placed  were  warmed  or  was  protected 
from  extreme  severities. 

The  natural  adjustment,  then,  of  food  to  the  wants  of  the  system 
is  influenced  by  age,  exercise  and  temperature.  The  two  latter 
may  be  controlled  by  means  both  simple  and  cheap,  so  that  both 
food  is  saved  and  accumulations  of  fat  deposited. 

§  129.  The  great  error  in  this  State  in  cattle  husbandry  is,  the 
practice  of  compelling  animals  to  shirk  for  themselves  both  winter 
and  summer.  So  effectually  do  they  consume  all  they  eat  in  win- 
ter to  keep  themselves  warm,  that  when  spring  comes  the}''  are 
more  than  spring pooj\  and  two  months  is  required  to  get  them  up 
to  a  living  condition  ;  and  it  is  rare  that  a  fat  animal  is  found  or 
made  dnring  summer  and  autumn. 

There  is,  then,  no  doubt  that  shelter  and  food  is  required  in  ISTorth- 
Carolina  as  well  as  in  IN  ew  York,  though  the  climate  is  mu3h  more 
favorable  here  for  every  purpose  than  in  the  north.  The  natural 
food  which  is  mostly  the  produce  of  old  fields  and  the  wood  and 
swatnp  ranges,  is  far  less  nutritious  than  the  cultivated  vegetables; 
more  exercise  is  required  to  get  it,  and  hence  a  greater  amount  of 
expenditure  of  force  is  necessary.  This,  coupled  with  the  fact  of  a 
less  nutritious  food  and  exposure,  accounts  for  the  small  size  of  the 
stock  of  the  Southern  States. 

f  130.  It  is  an  interesting  enquiry,  what  crop  or  production  con- 
tains in  itself,  the  largest  amount  of  nutriment  or  life-snstaining 
elements?  In  a  question  of  this  kind,  it  should  be  understood  that 
it  is  not  simj  ly  albumen  or  gluten,  the  flesh  producing  bodies,  which 
are  involved  in  the  question,  or  the  quantity  of  heat  producing 
bodies  as  starch,  sugar  and  gum;  for  neither  class  of  bodies  is  in 
reality  life  sustaining  by  itself,  but  it  relates  to,  or  means  to  inquire, 
what  crop  per  acre  contains  that  combination  of  the  heat  and  flesh 
producing  bodies  in  the  greatest  quantity  ?  A  good  old  Malthusian 
would  regard  this  as  a  question  of  the  deepest  import,  and  would 
call  to  his  aid  the  power  of  arithmetic  and  of  the  statistics  of  crops 
to  solve  the  question. 


108  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

§  131.  To  obtain  a  close  approximate  solution  of  this  question^ 
it  is. necessary  to  state  the  several  weights  of  the  crops  which  an 
acre  yields  under  good  culture.  An  acre  should  yield,  for  example^ 
25  bushels  of  wheat,  though  large  territories  may  not  yield  more 
than  15  bushels;  but  an  acre  which  will  yield  25  bushels  of  wheat 
will  yield  60  bushels  of  corn — it  is  always  competent  to  do  this;. 
but  the  reverse  of  this  is  not  true,  for  swamp  lands  will  readily  pro- 
duce the  Indian  corn,  but  not  more  than  half  the  amouat  of  wheat 
and  of  a  poor  quality. 

If  Indian  corn  is  compared  with  the  turnip,  which  is  legarded  in^ 
England  as  furnishing  the  greatest  amount  of  life  preserving  ele- 
ments, it  will  appear  that  in  this  respect  it  exceeds  our  favorite- 
crop.  It  is  assumed  that  a  crop  of  turnips  yield  per  acre  67,000 
pounds,  but  only  one-ninth  of  this  is  nutriment,  the  rest  is  water  ; 
there  is,  therefore,  out  of  the  67,000  pounds  only  8,444  of  dry  mat- 
ter. The  heat  producing  elements  only  equal  6,220  pounds,  and 
the  flesh  producing  bodies  amount  to  1,000  pounds.  The  grain  of 
Indian  corn  contains  in  an  acre  2,780  pounds  of  starch,  oil,  &c.^ 
which  belong  to  the  heat  producing  bodies,  while  the  flesh  produ- 
cing amount  to  840  pounds.  If  the  grain  only  is  taken  into  the 
account,  turnips  rank  higher  than  corn  in  their  life  sustaining  pow- 
er. But  it  may  thus  be  that  though  turnips  outweigh  Indian  corn, 
it  is  not  clear  that  in  actual  service  this  crop  could  by  itself  be  em- 
ployed for  the  human  family ;  it  answers  a  good  purpose  as  one  of 
our  dishes,  and  gives  a  relish  to  a  turkey  or  roast  beef;  no  one 
would  like  the  process  of  being  fattened  exclusively  upon  turnips. 
But  Indian  corn  being  susceptible  of  all  kinds  of  treatment  by  ih& 
cook,  each  one  of  which  is  generally  relished,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  it  should  be  placed  highest  in  the  scale  as  a  life  sustaining 
body. 

§  132.  Of  the  root  crops,  though  turnips  in  England  are  prefer- 
red to  all  others  for  fattening  cattle,  yet  they  must  rank  far  below 
the  sweet  potatoe.  The  dry  matter  in  the  sweet  potatoe  amounts 
to  30  per  cent.  It  contains  19  per  cent,  of  starch,  5  per  cent,  of 
sugar,  and  nearly  1  per  cent,  of  dextrine  or  gum.  Its  heat  produ- 
cing bodies  in  the  aggregate  amount  to  25  per  cent,  at  least.  It 
contains  nearly  7  per  cent,  of  flesh  forming  bodies.  A  crop  of 
sweet  potatoes  will  weigh  per  acre  about  30,000  pounds.  The 
quantity  of  starch,  sugar,  &c.,  will  amount  to  7,625  pounds,  and 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOCJ-ICAL   SUKVET.  109 

the  weight  of  the  flesh  producing  elements  amount  to  2,100  pounds. 
The  life  sustaining  eleenents,  therefore,  in  the  sweet  potatoes  exeeed 
those  of  the  turnip,  and  would  be  preferred  by  far  to  them ;  and  if 
the  human  family  was  reduced  to  the  alternative  of  subsisting  upon 
a  single  product,  the  sweet  potatoe  would  do,  because,  like  Indian 
corn,  it  may  be  cooked  in  various  modes  and  made  to  suit  the  pal- 
ate, which  is  by  no  means  to  be  lost  sight  of.  But  the  turnip  has 
too  much  water,  is  too  insipid  for  daily  use  by  itself,  and  could  not 
be  employed  alone  as  a  life  sustaining  substance,  notwithstanding 
its  rank.  It  takes  rank  because  of  the  immense  weight  of  a  crop 
upon  an  acre.  Taken  pound  for  pound  and  it  ranks  low  in  the  scale 
of  nutrients.  A  person  would  have  to  consume  3  pounds  of  turnips 
to  obtain  the  nutrient  matter  of  one  pound  of  the  sweet  potatoe,  if 
our  estimate  is  founded  upon  the  quantity  of  dry  matter  which  they 
respectively  contain.  In  the  Indiaii  corn  there  is  about  14  per 
cont.  water  ;  by  the  most  thorough  drying  it  amounts  to  16.  The 
remainder  is  important  as  a  nutrient,  taking  the  word  in  its  broad- 
est signification. 

We  are  aware  that  Johnson's  doctrine  is  somewhat  different.  He 
maintains  in  his  scale  of  heat  producing  elements  that  the  turnip 
will  support  eight  times  as  many  men  upon  the  same  acre  as  wheat. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  they  are  estimated  for  flesh  forming  qual- 
ities, turnips  will  support  four  times  as  many  men  as  wheat,  Indian 
corn,  or  barley. 

Cabbage,  however,  it  is  admitted,  ranks  higher  than  turnips  in 
its  flesh  forming  elements.  The  Irish  and  the  negro  population 
seem  to  understand  this ;  the  former  particularly,  purchase  in  mar- 
ket a  cabbage,  if  it  is  to  be  found. 

§  133.  The  produce  of  an  acre  of  cabbage  amounts  to  242  ton& 
if  their  heads  average  10  pounds  each.  Of  this  quantity  20.2  tons 
is  water  and  4  is  dry  cabbage,  of  which  a  ton  will  contain  324 
pounds  of  nitrogenous  matter.  A  ton  contains  18  pounds  of  inor- 
ganic matter,  but  if  the  substance  is  perfectly  dry,  it  contains  153.9' 
pounds.  The  problem  to  be  solved,  however,  is  not  the  power  of 
the  different  kinds  of  substances  to  sustain  life  by  their  actual 
amounts  of  heat  or  flesh  producing  elements  which  they  contain- 
It  does  not  seem  to  be  intended  that  either  man  or  beast  should 
subsist  upon  one  kind  of  food.  The  appetite  is  never  satisfied  with 
one  or  two  things  even, — it  seeks  variety ;  and  when  variety  is  at- 


no  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

tainable,  the  strength  for  labor  and  the  enjoyment  of  health  attains 
its  maximum  power.  ' 

Turnips  and  cabbage  are  important  articles  in  the  list  of  nutri- 
ments; and  although  they  may  contain  more  nitrogenous  matter 
than  wheat  or  corn,  yet  few  persons  would  make  them  their  exclu- 
sive meat  and  drink,  unless  driven  by  necessity  so  to  do;  and  if 
necessity  compelled  men  to  take  them,  the  power  to  work  and  en- 
dure fatigue  would  be  diminished,  while  Indian  corn,  wheat,  or 
even  sweet  potatoes,  though  the}''  contain  less  nitrogenous  matter, 
would  supply  the  wants  of  the  system  much  better. 

§  134.  It  is  maintained,  and  the  fact  should  be  noticed  in  this 
connexion,  that  root  crops,  particularly  the  turnip,  are  to  be  spe- 
cially recommended  for  cultivation  as  they  impoverish  the  land 
less.  Let  us  look,  however,  at  the  facts.  A  good  turnip  crop  weighs 
to  the  acre  67,000  pounds,  and  its  inorganic  matter  or  salts  amount 
to  450  pounds  to  the  aci-e,  while  wheat  has  only  about  60  pounds 
in  the  25  bushels.  Cabbage  takes  away  about  600  according  to 
Johnson,  but  this  is  rather  to  little  for  dry  cabbage;  it  amounts  to 
€15.3i  pounds.  Gre«n  cabbage  contains  only  18  pounds  to  the  ton. 
When  we  consider,  then,  the  great  weight  of  a  good  crop  of  turnips 
or  cabbage,  it  will  be  admitted,  we  believe,  that  the}''  are  really 
more  exhausting  than  the  cereals.  It  makes  no  difference  in  the 
final  results  if  it  is  proved  that  the  root  crop  derive  a  large  share  of 
their  nutriment  from  them  ;  they  must  obtain  inorganic  matter  from 
the  soil  in  due  proportion,  and  experiment  proves  that  they  remove 
more  from  the  soil  than  other  crops.  This  is  not  stated  with  a  view 
to  discourage  the  raising  of  roots.  They  have  their  place  in  feed- 
ing animals  in  the  winter  and  spring  when  the  green  grasses  can- 
Eot  be  had.  But  they  should  not  be  selected  for  cultivation  on  the 
erroneous  doctrine  that  they  do  not  impoverish  the  soil,  or  to  less 
amount  than  the  cereals  and  many  other  crops. 

§  135.  Our  remarks  thus  far  have  related  to  the  cereals  and  those 
crops  which  are  designed  for  the  sustenance  of  man,  or  rather  the 
character  of  the  elements  which  he  constantly  employs. 

We  have  another  class  of  nutrients  in  fruits,  which  are  of  vast  im- 
portance. Their  cultivation  is  every  where,  we  may  say,  receiving 
special  attention,  but  many  work  on  the  old  doctrine  that  a  fruit 
tree  or  vine  will  provide  for  itself,  if  it  is  once  fairly  planted  and 
watered  a  few  times.     It  lives  and  may  be  it  flourishes  a  few  years, 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEYEY.  Ill 

but  in  process  of  time  it  ceases  to  grow,  and  its  fruit  fails  in  quan- 
tity and  quality.  In  such  a  result  the  planter  is  very  apt  to  say 
that  the  climate  is  unsuitable  for  its  growth. 

But  let  us  briefly  inculcate  the  true  doctrine  relative  to  trees. 
They  require  fertilizers  as  well  as  the  cereals,  and  most  of  the  fruits 
are  injured  by  heavy  grass  culture,  and  especially  by  corn.  The 
reason  is  they  are  robbed  of  food.  Roots  extend  much  farther  than 
many  suppose;  hence  the  deep  plowing  at  a  distance  from  the  irunk 
breaks  up  the  rootlets  and  cuts  off  the  channels  through  which  nu- 
triment ordinarily  flows.  Thrifty  and  profltable  trees  are  made  in 
this  way  only,  that  of  «upplying  that  variety  of  nutriment  which 
any  farmer  knows  his  wheat  or  corn  requires.  The  mode  which 
should  be  followed  in  applying  it,  is  to  broadcast  it  over  the  sur- 
face, and  which  should  extend  beyond  the  shade  of  the  branches. 
Yery  few  rootlets  for  the  support  of  the  tree  are  thrown  out,  ordi- 
narily, near  the  trunk.  It  is  of  little  use  again  to  trench  around 
the  tree  and  deposit  in  the  cut  manure — it  is  far  better  to  give  the 
whole  surface  of  an  orchard  dressings  of  composted  manure.  Such 
a  course  favors  the  development  of  rootlets,  and  the  nutrient  mat- 
ter is  carried  down  to  them  in  that  dilute  condition  which  their 
spongioles  require ;  and  lastly,  trees  require  clean  culture,  the  re- 
moval of  all  weeds  beneath,  and  suckers  which  sprout  from  the 
base  of  the  trunk. 

§  136.  Many  trim  their  trees  outrageously  by  cutting  the  lowest 
large  branches;  the  consequence  is  the  production  of  a  high,  slim- 
headed  tree  of  little  value.  The  growth  of  the  apple  tree  is  upper- 
ward  and  ]iarrow,  with  only  a  slight  tendency  to  spread  or  expand 
latterally.  Tiiis  mode  of  trimming  the  tree  increases  the  upward 
growth,  and  hence,  a  very  imperfect  head  is  formed  by  the  lateral 
extension  of  the  side  branches.  Trees  thus  mutilated  always 
remain  cripples,  if  the  word  can  be  a]>plied  to  trees.  Even  peach 
trees  in  North-Carolina  are  deprived  of  their  best  bearing  branches. 
In  addition  to  the  injury  sustained  directly  as  fruit-bearing  trees,, 
their  trunks  are  also  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which  blast& 
the  south  or  south-western  sides,  in  consequence  of  being  deprived 
in  part,  at  least,  of  the  shading  which  they  require  from  the 
branches. 

In  regard  to  vines,  we  beliere  the  European  mode  of  close  trim- 
ming not  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  our  native  graves.     It 


112  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

is  unnatural,  and  not  really  required  by  our  climate.  It  is  true, 
the  Catawba,  under  the  knife  and  sheare  of  foreign  cnlturists, 
have  survived  thus  far  their  mutilations;  but  this  fact  rather 
proves  their  life  tenacity  and  natural  recuperative  powers  under 
injury,  than  the  utility  of  the  practice.  What  the  human  system 
may  endure  under  physic  is  one  thing;  what  it  requires,  and  is 
necessary  for  perfect  health  and  developement,  is  another. 

In  our  southern  climate,  protection  from  a  burning  sun  on  the 
side  exposed  from  noon  till  five,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
points  to  be  attended  to,  and  probably  it  is  equally  necessary  in 
the  growth  of  young  orchards  and  vinerieS  to  protect  the  roots 
during  the  heat  and  drouth  of  summer  by  mulching.  The  object 
is  to  preserve  the  water  of  the  soil,  or  prevent  its  excessive  evapo- 
ration by  organic  matters,  which  are  the  most  retentive  of  moisture 
of  ail  bodies  which  can  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 


}i[ORTH-CAROLIM    GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY, 


PART    II 


AGRICULTURE. 


OONTAINING   DESCKIPTIONS,   WITH    MANY 

ANALYSES,  OF  THE  SOILS  OF  THE 

SWAMP  LANDS. 


BY 


BENEZER     EMMONS, 


STATE  GEOLOGIST. 


EALEIGH: 

W,     HOLDEN,     PRINTER    TO    .THE     STATE. 


*t 


PREFACE. 


The  Swamp  lands  of  North  Carolina  seemed  to  require  a  special 
examination  in  consequence  of  their  variable  characters  and  their 
great  extent  of  surface.  Differing  in  all  respects  from  the  uplands 
but  possessing  among  themselves  certain  characters  in  common 
and  at  the  same  time  as  badies  of  land  other  characters,  which 
are  not  common,  we  have  entertained  the  opinion  that  thej  richly 
deserved  a  careful  examination,  and  have  been  encouraged  to 
undertake  it  in  the  hope  that  it  would  result  in  the  discovery  of 
many  important  facts.  Such  a  result  has  been  hoped  for  by  the 
fact  that  other  State  surveys,  as  well  as  those  which  have  been 
undertaken  by  private  enterprise,  have  left  this  field  untouched. 

Viewing  the  subject  in  its  most  general  points,  before  the  work 
was  undertaken,  it  seemed  that  the  most  important  questions  re- 
quiring solution  were  those  which  related  to  the  condition  and 
state  of  the  elements  which  compose  these  soils,  their  relative  and 
absolute  quantities,  and  their  prospective  powers  of  endurance 
when  brought  into  cultivation ;  the  latter  of  which  would  be  de- 
termined, or  at  least  indicated,  by  the  per  centages  which  analyses 
would  give.  These  are  some  of  the  views  which  have  governed 
us  in  the  choice  of  measures  we  adopted  in  executing  the  task,  and 
which  have  also  incited  us  to  the  undertaking.  As  we  had  already 
■determined  from  several  analyses  that  there  were  varieties  of  soil 
included  under  the  general  term  swamp  lands^  though  they  have 
the  same  aspect  and  appear  much  alike,  and  yet  were  found  to  be 
unlike  the  best  lands  under  this  class ;  so  we  felt  that  it  was  im- 
portant to  be  able  to  point  out  those  particulars  in  which  they 
differed.  This  is  not  at  all  diflScult  when  subjected  to  laboratory 
tests,  but  it  would  be  still  more  useful  to  point  out  some  method 
which  could  be  executed  by  the  planter,  and  upon  which  he  could 
rely,  at  least  so  far  as  to  distinguish  thereby  the  poor  soils  from  the 
rick 


VI  PBBFACE, 

The  method  proposed  i&  simply  a  mechanical  separation  of  parts 
hj  means  of  water,  and  by  which  the  coarse  sands  may  be  obtained 
separately  from  the  fine,  the  latter  of  which  are  really  the  important 
inorganic  parts,  and  which  give  in  analysis  the  lime,  iron,  alnminaj. 
phosphates^  magnesia,  etc.  These  complex  elements,  which  furnish 
these  important  nutritive  or  available  elements  differ  in  different 
localities  and  in  different  parts  of  the  same  tracts,  facts  which  are 
explained  in  the  text.    In  some  they  are  reduced  to  2.50,  or  3  to 

4  per  cent.,  when  in  other  parts  perhaps  of  the  same  tract  they 
exist  in  proportions  varying  from  10  to  50  per  cent. 

By  a  mechanical  separation  in  the  mode  we  have  described^  a 
planter  may  determine  these  important  facts  for  himself  with  suf- 
Hcient  accuracy  to  guide  him  in  his  purposes,  for  it  is  an  established 
principle,  that  when  the  inorganic  matter  does  not  exceed  3,  4,  or 

5  per  cent.,  the  land  will  not  produce  well.  If,  however,,  this  small 
per  centage  exists  only  in  a  top  layer,  and  at  a  depth  of  18  inches 
or  so,  there  is  a  stratum  charged  with  a  larger  per  centago,  say  10 
to  16  per  cent,  of  inorganic  matter  in  which  the  fine  soil  exists^ 
the  land  may  be  cultivated  successfully ;  if,  however,  a  stratum  of 
this  kind  is  5  or  6  feet  below,  or  we  have  a  mass  of  this  thickness 
composed  almost  exclusively  of  vegetable  matter^  the  plant  will  be 
unable  to  send  its  roots  thus  far,  for  it  will  perish  too  soon  to  secure 
a  foothold  on  life,  just  as  it  would  in  a  bed  of  marl,  or  a  heap  of 
stable  refuse. 

The  Carteret  county  open  prairie  has  been  re-examined,  and  we 
find  a  more  favorable  composition  of  its  soil  than  at  a  previous 
visit.  Drainage  of  a  tract  has  effected  a  shrinkage  of  the  vegeta- 
ble matter  so  much  that  a  stratum  of  soil  may  be  reached  by  the 
roots  of  crops.  The  tract,  in  its  poorest  constitution,  is  by  no- 
means  to  be  ranked  with  a  first  class  swamp  soil.  I  have  stated 
that  there  is  a  belt  of  excellent  land  surrounding  the  open  prairie. 
But  though  the  open  prairie  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
the  cereals,  yet  for  Irish  potatoes  it  is  admirably  constituted,  and  it  is 
iiot  improbable  but  that  an  enterprising  man  would  make  money 
by  their  cultivation.  But  I  have  stated  the  principal  facts  in  their 
proper  places,  and  need  only  refer  to  them  in  this  place. 

The  labor  required  in  the  analysis  of  so  many  specimens  has 
been  exceedingly  great.  The  work  has  been  in  hand  more  than  two 
years.      My  assistants  have  been  employed  with  me  in  the  woffk 


FREFACE.  TE 

when  in  town  and  vrhen  out  door  work  was  impossible  or  could  not 
be  prosecuted  to  advantage.  We  have  no  doubt  that  much  more 
should  be  undertaken,  the  results  of  which  would  be  anvantageoua 
to  the  State,  at  least  indirectly.  It  is  highly  important  that  lands 
so  fertile  should  be  brought  into  cultivation,  and  we  have  no-  doubt 
that  large  tracts  which  are  classified  under  the  term,  svjamj)  landSy 
are  to  become  the  best  in  the  State  for  the  growth  of  cotton.  The 
great  want  which  is  felt  is  the  construction  of  roads  by  which 
these  lands  may  be  reached  and  brought  into  market.  We  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  two  millions  of  acres  of  swamp 
lauds  are  worth  four  millions  of  upland.  In  a  rough  estimate  of 
this  kind,  we  take  time  and  expense  of  cultivation  into  the  account — 
the  time  these  lands  endure  without  the  use  of  expensive  fertili- 
zers, and  the  ease  and  the  slight  wear  and  tear  of  the  instruments 
used  in  cultiration,  when  compared  in  the  sam®  list  of  expenses 
required  in  the  cultivation  of  the  uplands  of  the  middle  counties. 
However  this  may  be,  our  aim  has  been  to  place  the  merits  of 
these  lands  in  their  true  light;  not  to  exaggerate  or  depreciate. 
If  this  aim  has  been  secured  we  shall  be  satisfied  with  the  resii-ltg-.. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  compensations  which  take  place  in  nature  and  by  which  a  balance  of  forces 
is  preserved.  Considerations  relating  to  water.  Water  surfaces.  Evaporation 
regulated  by  saline  njatters  in  the  ocean.  Carbon  and  carbonic  acid.  Insolu- 
bility of  vegetable  matter  a  conservative  condition.  Average  fall  of  rain. 
9—17. 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  UTILITY  resulting  from  tVie  analysis  of  soils.     Methods  pursued.     IT — 23. 

CHAPTER   III. 
The  swamp  lands.     Their  mode  of  formation  and  geological  age.     23 — 26. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Geographical  position  of  the  swamp  lands,  and  their  extent  in  North-Carolina. 

Defective  information  in  the  public  archives  of  the  State.      The  Savannah 

lands,  etc.     26—28. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Temperature  of  soils.     Distribution  and  circulation  of  heat.     28 — 32. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Swamp  lands  divided  into  six  districts.  The  Dismal  swamp  district  has  not 
been  explored.  Diversity  of  composition  of  these  lands.  Elevated  in  the 
middle.     32-35. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Composition  of  swamp  lands  stated.  Hyde  county.  Natural  crop  is  Indian 
corn.     Number  of  plants  to  the  acre.     Quantity  raised.     35 — i9. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Position  of  Plymouth.  Quality  of  soils  indicated  by  the  growth  of  timber.  Cost 
ot  drainage.  Composition  of  four  specimens  of  soil  from  the  south  side  of 
Albemarle  sound.     Mechanical  separation  of  elements,  etc.     50 — 57. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
The  Pungo  tract.  Gen.  Blount's  plantation.  General  description  of  this  part  of 
the  Albemarle  swamp,  with  its  natural  growth  of  timber.  Depth  and  compo- 
sition of  the  soils  of  this  section  of  the  swamp.  Mechanical  separation  of  the 
parts  of  the  soil.  How  the  poor  soils  of  this  class  may  be  improved.  Tyrrell 
county.     The  centre  of  the  Albemarle  tract  highest  in  the  centre.     57 — 65. 


VUl  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS- 

CHAPTER  X. 

Bay  river  District,  composition  of  its  soil.  The  4th  district  of  Swamp  lands. 
The  open  prairie  of  Carteret  county,  composition  of  its  soils.  Change  effected 
by  drainage.     Inorganic  matter  increases  with  the  depth  of  soil.     65 — 74. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Composition  of  soils  towards  Beaufort.     Composition   of  Mr.  Sefton's  swamp 
land.     Adams  creek  soils,   Craven  county.      Dover    swamp  Craven  county- 
Its  hight  above  Newbern.     Composition  of  its  soil.     75 — 80. 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Swamp  lands  of  New  Hanover  and  Brunswick  counties,  their  composition  with 
remarks.     80—86. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Gall  berry  lands,  and  their  composition.     The  Savannah  lands  and  their  charac- 
teristics and  composition.     87 — 91. 

APPENDIX, 
iContaining  brief  descriptions  of  the   Mineral   Springs   and  well  waters   which 
.©ocur  in  and  about  Raleigh,     92 — 95. 


SURVEY   OF   NORTH-CAROLIM. 

PART     II. 

May,  1860.  E.  Emmons. 


CHAPTER   -I. 

The  compensafietis  which  take  place  in  nature  and  by  whiihabalance  of  forces 
is  preserved.  Considerations  relating  to  water.  Water  surfaces.  Evapora- 
tion regulated  by  saline  matters  in  the  ocean.  Carbon  and  carbonic  acid.  In- 
solubility of  vegetable  matter  a  conservative  condition.     Average  fall  of  rain. 

§  1.  Rational  farming  rests  on  compensations,  and  has  to  be 
conducted  in  accordance  with  the  known  laws  of  nature.  If,  in  any 
part  of  space  the  balance  of  the  forces  is  about  to  be  lost,  there 
will  immediately  set  in  counteracting  forces  to  restore  the  balance 
which  is  thus  endangered.  The  machinery  of  nature  is  so  construct- 
ed, or  under  the  government  of  such  forces,  that  a  balance  is  pre- 
served among  them.  Heat  rarefies  the  air,  and  it  rises  in  space,  but 
its  place  is  immediately  supplied  from  the  surrounding. cooler  atmos- 
phere. The  great  body  of  it  may  be  moved  over  extensive  areas, 
and  when  it  has  been  subjected  to  excessive  heat,  the  balance 
must  be  restored  by  winds  and  forces  acting  with  a  violence  pro- 
portioned to  the  causes  of  disturbance.  The  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  soil  is  in  part,  and  for  a  time,  .restored  from  the  reservoir 
below.  When,  however,  solid  matters  are  removed  from  the  soil 
by  cultivation,  the  balance  can  be  restored  only  by  the  hand  of 
man.  Even  water  has  to  be  provided  in  certain  countries  by  irri- 
gation. But  in  the  general  operations  of  the  natural  forces,  ample 
provision  is  made  for  supplying  water,  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid 
to  all  ^parts  of  the  earth's  surface.    If  no  provisions  existed  in  the 


10  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

machinery  of  nature  to  effect  a  general  distribution  of  these  im- 
portant elements,  the  earth's  surface  would  be  a  barren  waste. 
Irrigation  can  only  supply  water  under  favorable  circumstances. 
The  great  reservoirs  of  water  for  watering  the  earth  are  the  oceans. 
Let  us  see  how  the  machinery  works  when  it  is  furnishing  the 
supplies  which  vegetation  every  where  requires.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  necessary  lo  know  that  the  area  which  is  to  be  watered  must 
be  rightly  proportioned  to  that  from  which  the  supply  is  to  come, 
and  this  supply  is  derived  from  the  water  surfaces  provided  for  the 
purpose.  Now,  the  Atlantic  ocean  has  an  area  of  twenty-five  mil- 
lions of  square  miles,  and  the  Pacific  of  seventy  millions.  These 
are  the  two  great  water  surfaces  upon  which  an  earths  surface  of 
thirty-five  millions  of  square  miles  is  dependant  for  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  this  element.  Now,  it  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  arrange- 
ment, that  water  should  pass  from  the  state  of  water  to  alight 
vapor,  at  all  temperatures.  Water  has  this  ]>roperty,  though  we 
connect  its  vaporous  state  with  its  boiling  condition,  when  its  tem- 
perature is  raised  to  212°  of  Fah.  But  at  this  temperature  we 
fihd  that  the  heat  it  receives  is  just  balanced  by  its  apparent  loss 
or  by  latent  heat  in  the  vapor  as  it  escapes.  While  heating  up  to 
2i2°  its  iaccession  of  heat  is  greater  than  the  loss  locked  up  in 
'ira|)6r,  Mid  hence,  continues  to  accumulate,  or  to  grow  hotter,  till 
lifreaches  this  point.  If  vapor  was  not  formed  till  water  boiled, 
oritideed,  if  hot  formed  at  all  temperatures,  the  earth  would  be 
uiifrihaT3itabl6. 

'^^  'Water  then  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  at  all  temperatures  gets 
'^ftffieiiehtiieat  to'  change  it  into  vapor.  It  is  water  still,  but  its  par- 
ti%lfe&  are  so  widely  separated  by  heat  or  expanded  that  if  seen,  it 
^■^'intst^n  cldudydr  may  he  steam.  Its  expansion  lifts  it  above 
■th^  water  surfaSe,  biit  this  is  not  all ;  the  heat  which  has  thus  gen- 
"^f^^ied  "i^iipbi',  ci'eates ;also  currents,  moving  air,  or  wind;  and  wind 
ii'tlie  trah'sporting'^gent  by  which  vapor  is  borne  landward.  It 
^'6eps'6vel'  viast  area^,  reaches  the  mountain  ranges,  and  upon 
^very  object,  tre^!,'stofte  or  land,  which  is  cooler  than  the  vapor 
•ifsfel^''-Tt'3%)6sitg^!i<j!)al¥'d^^^  burthen.  This  is  especially  the  case 
"4Fit''^wt:6'ji^'Wp'"1;iye'7i^Sihf  side,  if  it  is  tall  and  reaches  the  re- 
■^ion  of  frost,  it  is  eh'tirely  disburthened  of  its  load.  It  is  here,  how- 
W^rj- WH'eifife'^fi^aiiik' find  n vers  are  formed  and  from  whence  they 
•^iM''k^^^M,  feSi^ij^iti^'Ba'dk  to  the  parent  bosom  every  atom  which 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  11 

the  sea  had  loaned.  Should  but  a  few  atoms  be  lost  in  the  outward 
or  homeward  journeys,  the  sea  would  fail  to  be  kept  full,  and  in 
process  of  time  it  would  be  dried  up.  Every  atom  is  therefore  sent 
back,  and  thereby  the  balance  of  nature  is  preserved.  Water  en- 
dowed as  it  is,  must  circulate  and  supply  the  earth,  and  its  people 
with  itself  A  counteracting  law  would  be  required  to  arrest  its 
service.  Our  safety,  however,  for  a  supply  rests  mainly  on  the 
ease  with  which  the  loaded  winds  discharge  their  "argoes.  If  they 
were  more  niggardly,  and  held  on  to  their  possession  with  a  miser- 
ly grasp,  the  poor  plains  and  rollii.g  hills  would  be  swindled  out 
of  their  dues;  and  none  but  the  snow  clad  mountain  could  extract 
the  liquid  treasure. 

Nature  then  has  provided  a  machinery  for  the  distribution  of 
water  which  works  perfectly.  The  farmer  may  sit  in  his  parlor 
and  see  its  operations.  He  needs  no  watering  cart  to  supply  his 
crops  like  those  used  to  lay  the  dust  of  the  streets  of  cities.  Such 
would  be  too  expensive  and  cumbersome  and  would  utterly  fail. 
Compensation  is  the  law.  If  the  mountains,  hills,  and  plains  are 
irrigated  by  the  forces  of  nature,  ample  provision  is  made  for  the 
return  of  the  element  to  its  parent  bosom  to  be  re-used  and  so  work 
on  as  long  as  seed  time  and  harvests  shall  continue.  ISTow  water 
how  many  times  soever  it  takes  its  round  of  circulation  never  wears- 
out,  and  it  has  been  found,  that  a  given  area  of  land  gets  punctual- 
ly its  annual  share;  and  those  countries  which  are  deprived  of 
rains  or  water  in  its  usual  form,  ever  remain  in  this  condition. 
This  stability  is  due  to  the  uniformities  in  the  operation  of  forces. 
The  winds,  unstable  proverbially,  are  still  under  the  government 
of  law,  and  hence,  as  carriers  of  rain,  and  distributors  of  the  ele- 
ments essential  to  the  growth  of  plants,  perform  their  offices  sa 
punctually  and  regularly  that  the  kingdoms  of  nature  rarely  suffer 
from  their  failure  to  perform  their  office.  But  it  seems  to  us  at  the 
Urst  thought,  that  as  three-fourths  of  the  world  has  to  be  laid  un- 
der water  so  that  the  other  fourth  may  be  supplied  with  this  ele- 
ment that  nature  has  been  too  lavish  in  its  supply  of  evaporating 
surfaces.  We  are  however,  forced  to  admit  the  fact  after  we  have 
found  that  it  is  rare  that  it  is  any  where  in  excess.  It  is  true  that 
a  few  limited  patches  of  land  in  India,  where  according  to  observa- 
tions not  less  than  600  inches  of  rain  fall  during  the  year,  a  quanti- 
ty which  if  furnished  at  one  tinie  would  cover  the  country  with  a. 


12  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVICY. 

depth  of  50  feet.  Here  there  appears  to  be  be  a  great  excess  of 
this  element.  As  an  offset  however,  to  such  excessive  installments 
of  rain,  we  have  several  rainless  districts,  as  Peru.  Chili  and  the 
Sahara  of  Africa,  and  hence  it  is  probable  that  the  average  quanti- 
ty of  rain  for  the  whole  acreage  of  land,  would  scarcely  exceed  50 
inches;  and  hence,  in  the  general  operations  of  nature,  there  is 
only  a  sufficient  water  surface  to  supply  the  rains  which  are  neces- 
sary to  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 

The  annual  fall  of  rain  at  Chapel  Hill  is  43.96  inches.  At  Gas- 
ton 40.83  inches,  and  at  Murfreesborough  82.54  inches.  There  is 
no  excess  of  rain  it  would  seem  from  the  few  observations  to  which 
we  can  gain  access  in  the  Eastern  counties. 

We  have  said  that  all  the  water  which  the  Oceans  loaned  from 
their  exchequers  is  returned  in  due  time,  not,  it  is  true,  in  the  same 
individual  particles,  for  the  Atlantic  furnishes  water  to  the  Pacific, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  a  mutual  interchange,  but  each  gets  its  quota 
and  thereby  keeps  its  coffers  filled. 

But  rivers,  though  they  return  all  the  water  required,  they  do 
not  return  it  in  the  pure,  unsophisticated  state  it  was  when  it  set 
out  on  its  journey  borne  by  winds  to  the  mountains.  On  its  re- 
turn it  is  burthened  with  salts  of  various  kinds.  It  robs  the  soil 
every  where  of  its  matter  which  we  call  fertilizing.  Is  it  a  trespass 
upon  the  plantation  through  which  the  rivulet  flows,  a  robery  of 
which  the  farmer  has  a  right  to  complain  ?  In  general,  it  is  not. 
In  a  few  particulars  it  may  be.  We  think  the  Roanoke  should 
cease  plundering  the  upper  country,  but  in  general,  we  may  say, 
it  is  a  necessary  tithe  to  the  parent  waters.  It  is  necessary  to  en- 
able these  great  bodies  of  waters  to  fulfil  their  functions  to  earth 
and  man,  to  the  kingdoms  of  nature. 

Accojding  to  Maury,  the  Philosopher  of  the  Sea,  these  saline 
matters  serve  to  keep  the  sea  in  motion ;  they  bring  particles  at  the 
tpp  losing  their  proportion  of  fresh  water,  become  more  saline  and 
heavier,  and  sink  to  be  replaced  by  particles  moving  upwards. 
But  when  the  evaporating  forces  act  upon  large  surfaces  under  a 
vertical  sun,  the  excess  of  fresh  water  removed  is  so  great  that  a 
dimple  in  the.  surface  of  the  sea  is  formed  whereby  the  outer  boun- 
daries rush  in  to  filli^p  the  excavation.  But  saline  matter  in  the 
sea  retards  evaporation,;  it  becomes  a  check  upon  Eolus  or  any 
wind  which  would  perhaps  take  too  much  at  a  time,  and  thereby 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


13 


unnecessarily  drench  a  part  of  the  earth.  Saline  matter,  therefore, 
checks  evaporation,  and  as  fresh  water  floats  upon  the  surface  and 
may  be  evaporates  rapidly  for  a  time,  the  process  will  be  interrup- 
ted when  a  more  saline  layer  is  reached  ;  moderation  is  thereby 
secured. 

§  2.  But  it  may  be  inquired,  what  consequences  are  likely  to 
follow  from  a  constant  access  of  saline  matter  in  the  ocean  ?  "Will  it 
become  surcharged  by  evaporation,  and  will  it  become  too  saline 
for  terrestial  veo-etation  ?  Such  would  be  the  case  were  it  not  that 
the  forces  of  nature  tend  here  as  elsewhere  to  balance  each  other. 
The  sea  is  like  a  great  peopled  city.  There  are  builders  there  who 
want  matter  for  their  habitations.  There  is  the  coral  insect  who 
builds  reefs  extending  for  a  thousand  miles  in  a  continuous  line ; 
there  are  oysters,  clams,  and  myriads  of  shell  fish  as  they  are 
called,  who  use  vast  quantities  of  lime  and  oth-er  materials.  We 
have  seen  that  the  great  depths  af  the  sea  are  sanded  with  minute 
shells  of  foraminifera.  All  these  builders  conspire  to  keep  the  sea 
well  balanced  and  cleared  of  excess  of  saline  matter,  and  there  will 
be  no  excess,  because  it  is  solidified  by  the  organisms  prepared 
for  the  purpose  ;  and  such  has  been  the  operations  of  life,  in  all 
past  time  ;  the  older  rocks  are  charged  with  marine  organisms,  and 
the  newer  are  equally  so,  and  it  is  in  this  way  the  planter  is  pro- 
vided with  marl  and  other  fertilizers,  deposited  where  the  sea  once 
stood.  He  now  reaps  the  benefits  of  the  saline  matter  which  was 
robbed  from  the  land  millions  of  years  ago.  It  is  now  returned 
back  for  his  use  in  a  better  form  and  state.  But  the  salt  of  the  sea 
would  form  a  huge  pile  if  gathered  into  one  heap.  Shafhautl  has 
computed,  that  the  mineral  matter  suspended  in  the  ocean,  is 
equal  to  twice  the  bulk  of  the  Himalayas.  It  is  even  said  that 
there  is  common  salt  enough  in  the  ocean,  to  cover  an  area  of  seven 
millions  of  square  miles  to  the  depth  of  one  mile.  We  have  rea- 
son to  believe  this  immense  amount  of  saline  matter  has  been  tak- 
en from  the  land  since  rivers  have  flowed  seaward,  though  it  is  not 
fully  settled,  neither  can  it  be ;  whether  the  ocean  wrs  created 
brackish,  or  was  originally  fresh  water  like  our  rivers,  the  opera 
tions  of  nature  have  not  fully  declared  either  in  the  afhrmative  or 
negative. 

§  3.  The  swamp  lands  of  ISTorth-Carolina  and  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  contain  a  vast  amount  of  carbon.     The  vegetable  matter  is 


M:  NOKTH-OAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVEY. 

often  more  than  10  feet  deep ;  and  sometimes  it  is  not  easily 
sounded  by  the  longest  poles  we  can  nse.  The  quantity  of  organic 
matter,  mostly  carbon  in  some  form,  varies  from  one-half  to  ninety- 
five  hundreths  of  the  dry  mass. 

Whence  has  this  vast  quantity  of  carbon  been  derived  ?  ISTow 
the  answer  to  this  question  does  not  appear  to  be  difficult.  In  the 
first  place  all  of  it  was  once  alive,  and  it  all  consists  of  the  remains 
of  vegetables  whose  constituent  element  is  carbon.  iNow  the 
foundation  of  this  carbonaceous  body  generally  rests  on  a  pure  sand, 
or  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  ;  in  a  great  measure  is  entirely 
destitute  of  carbon  or  vegetable  matter,  and  hence  we  may  assume 
that  the  original  soil  did  not  contain  this  element  and  could  not 
supply  it.  We  are,  therefore,  obliged  to  look  for  a  supply  to  the 
atmosphere  as  has  already  been  indicated  in  a  former  treatise. 
It  may  be  interesting  to  see  the  computations  which  have  been 
made  with  respect  to  the  quantity  of  carbon  in  the  atmosphere  in 
combination  with  oxj^gen,  forming  carbonic  acid.  Thus  the  whole 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  being  known,  it  has  been  determined 
with  great  accuracy  that  its  carbonic  acid  forms  one  thousandth  of 
this  weight,  and  as  carbonic  acid  contains  twenty-seven  per  cent, 
of  carbon,  the  atmosphere  will  contain  three  thousand  and  eighty- 
five  billion  pounds  of  carbon.  This  quantity,  it  is  maintained,  ex- 
ceeds all  that  is  locked  up  in  the  forests,  and  in  the  condition  of 
mineral  coal  in  the  earth's  strata.  From  these  facts  we  may  be 
satisfied  tiiat  the  air  can  furnish  carbon  to  an  unlimited  amount. 
It  might  appear  that  the  withdrawal  of  this  vast  qauntity  of  carbon 
from  the  atmosphere  would  materially  affect  its  composition.  Of 
this  we  cannot  be  assured.  The  withdrawal  is  a  fact,  but  the 
sources  of  supplies  are  adequate  to  effect  a  replacement  of  the  ab- 
stracted carbon.  Thus  in  volcanic  action  vast  qantities  of  carbonic 
acid  pass  into  and  mingle  with  the  atmosphere.  What  is  with- 
drawn by  the  operation  of  one  class  of  forces  is  replaced  by 
another,  so  that  it  will  be  found,  that  the  true  balance  is  preserved, 
that  which  organized  beings,  by  their  constitution  require. 

In  the  coal  period  vast  quantities  of  carbon  were  withdrawn 
also  from  the  atmosphere,  and  solidified  in  the  anthracites  and  bitu- 
minous coals ;  and  hence  it  has  been  said  that  this  abstraction  of 
car])on  rendered  the  atmosphere  better  and  purer  than  it  had  been 
in  former  periods.     The   carbonic  acid  in  the  concurrent  changes 


NORTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  1'5 

of  tlie  day,  gave  up  its  oxygen,  which,  being  added  to  the  atmos- 
pheric mass,  improved  it  to  the  amount  thus  added. 

Whether  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere  has  changed  ma- 
terially since  animals  and  plants  were  created,  cannot  be  settled  by 
calcnlations  of  the  foregoing  kind.  We  must  resort  to  the  deter- 
mination by  facts  of  a  different  nature — those  which  relate  to  the 
wants  and  necessities  of  organic  bodies.  If  our  observations  on 
animals  and  plants  are  extended  to  the  coal  period,  we  cannot  find 
that  they  differed  in  their  capacities  to  resist  the  poisonous  effects  of 
excessive  doses  of  carbonic  acid  better  than  those  of  the  present  time. 
They  appear  to  have  been  fitted  to  precisely  similar  conditions  of 
the  surrounding  elements,  and  to  have  breathed  an  atmosphere 
like  our  own,  and  to  have  inhabited  a  medium  identical  with  the 
waters  now  upon  the  earth's  snrface.  In  fine,  it  is  not  proved  sat- 
isfactorily that  the  deviations  in  the  composition  of  the  controlling 
elements  would  injuriously  affect  the  living  organisms  of  the  pres- 
ent period.  So  that  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  atmosphere 
w^as  composed  of  elements  existing  in  the  ratios  that  they  now 
exist.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  compensating  forces  were  more 
active  in  early  periods  than  now.  If  carbonic  acid  was  removed 
more  rapidly  from  the  atmosphere  in  the  coal  pei-iod,  it  may  well 
be  maintained  that  volcanic  agencies  may  have  liberated  more 
carbonic  acid  fi'om  the  interior  of  the  earth  than  now,  and  hence, 
a  balance  among  the  forces  would  be  preserved. 

§  4.  The  vast  body  of  carbon  locked  up  in  the  swamp  lands  of 
Korth-Carolina  must  have  been  in  solution,  otherwise  it  could  not 
have  been  received  into  the  tissues  of  the  plants.  As  it  now  exists 
it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  soluble  substance.  If  its  solubility 
had  been  preserved  it  would  have  disappeared  and  found  its  way 
to  the  ocean.  Insolubility  is  a  preservative  force,  intended  to  pro- 
tect important  bodies  from  waste.  The  property,  however,  is  ex- 
cessively strong;  as  humic  acid  resists  water  alone  with  consider- 
able force,  requiring  2,500  times  its  weight  to  dissolve  it.  Both 
heat  and  frosts  too  affect  its  solubility ;  both  enables  it  to  resist  so- 
lution. In  these  facts  we  find  a  preservative  power  by  which  veg- 
etable fertilizers  remain  a  long  time  unchanged. 

§  5,  While  the  carbonaceous  bodies  are  soluble  with  difficulty  in 
water  alone,  we  find  that  alkalies  and  particularly  ammonia  ejffect 
their  solution,  and  it  seems  that  they  have  a  strong  affinity  for  this 


16 


NOETH-CAEOLmA  GfEOLOGICAL   STJEVEY, 


substance,  absorbing  it  readily  wherever  it  is  in  their  reach.  As 
ammonia  is  present  in  the  atmosphere,  and  as  rain  contains  it  in 
small  quantities  and  being  carried  down  into  the  midst  of  the  peat, 
it  dissolves  or  combines  with  portions  of  it,  and  forms  thereby  food 
for  the  nourishment  of  plants.  While  then,  water  in  which  peat  is 
constantly  immersed  scarcely  dissolves  it,  ammonia  comes  in  aid  of 
its  feeble  solvent  powers,  and  thereby  prepares  a  nutriment  for  the 
growing  crop  ;"  but  the  great  store  of  matter  remains,  and  is  only 
prepared  in  divided  doses.  The  conservative  force  exerted  in  so- 
lution, is  not  probably  all  that  is  concerned  in  supply,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  vitality  of  the  plant  some  way  or  other  regulates 
and  controls  tlie  reception  of  nutriment.  We  are  not  prepared  to 
say  how.  It  may  h&  ultimately  worked  out  by  successive  dis- 
coveries similar  to  those  which  took  place  in  regard  to  the  changes 
effected  by  the  plant  upon  carbonic  acid. 

It  would  then  be  like  the  history  of  all  great  discoveries,  effected 
at  different  times  and  by  the  sagacity  of  different  persons.  Thus, 
Bonnet,  first  observed  the  evolution  of  a  gas  from  leaves  immersed 
in  water ;  Priestly,  discovered  that  that  gas  was  oxygen  ;  Ingen- 
house  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  solar  light  for  its  disengage- 
ment, and  finally,  to  complete  the  range  of  discovery,  Leuwestein 
has  the  honor  of  showing  that  the  gas  oxygen,  is  derived  from  car- 
bonic acid.  It  is  thus  that  discoveries  advance  in  a  certain  line, 
step  by  step  towards  an  ultimate  fact,  or  generalization,  which  is 
required  in  order  to  express  the  perfection  of  the  advancing  series. 
It  is  onlj'"  at  the  termination  of  such  demonstrative  truths,  that 
theory  receives  its  finishing  stroke.  In  agriculture,  practice  has  no 
doubt  advanced  farther  than  theory.  Indeed  theory  is  so  far  in 
the  back  ground  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  existing  in  expecta- 
tion, rather  than  in  fact.  The  advancement  of  agriculture  then, 
cannot  be  ascribed  strictly  and  in  truth  to  theory ;  neither  has  it 
been  so  much  under  its  guidance  as  many  of  the  sciences.  Many 
practical  suggestions  have  sprung  up  from  theoretical  doctrines  ; 
still,  the  practice  of  agriculture  is  rarely  governed  by  them.  In- 
deed agricultural  theories,  belong  to  the,  a  jposteriori  class,  or  those 
which  have  grown  out  of  experience.  That  the  practice  of  agri- 
culture has  advanced  far  towards  perfection  without  the  aid  of 
theory,  is  not  surprising,  when  it  is  considered  that  its  operatiims 
are  yQvj  simple,  and  that  results  flow  from    them  with  great  cer- 


NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


IT 


tainty.  This  fact  has  preveuted  that  special  consideration  of  phe- 
nomena, which  would  have  come  to  pass  in  more  complicated  ar- 
rangements. Besides,  the  phenomena  with  which  agriculturalists 
are  most  familiar,  are  enveloped  in  a  kind  of  mystery  ;  and  hence, 
appear  to  be  beyond  their  reach.  They  can  however,  bring  out 
the  phenomena  of  vegetation  in  its  season  ;  the  grass  and  grain 
spring  up  when  they  sow  the  seed  ;  they  grow  up  under  their 
eyes,  though  not  in  obedience  to  their  will.  They  stand  however, 
in  the  place  of  its  proximate  cause  and  they  have  learned  by  am- 
ple experience,  that  their  growth  may  be  promoted  or  retarded  by 
certain  agents;  yet,  the  why  and  the  wherefore  they  have  not  sat- 
isfactorily determined. 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  UTILITY  resulting  from  the  analysis  of  soils.     Methods  pursued. 

§  6.  A  change  of  opinion  has  undoubtedly  taken  place  in  the 
minds  of  farmers  and  chemists  respecting  the  advantages  of  soil 
analyses.  In  the  earliest  days  of  agricultural  chemistry  expecta- 
tions were  no  doubt  too  high  ;  too  much  was  expected.  It  would, 
however,  be  contrary  to  facts,  to  deny  that  agriculture  has  been 
advanced  by  the  analysis  of  soils  and  the  ash  of  plants.  The 
knowledge  of  soils  is  certainly  much  more  exact  than  it  could  have 
been  had  their  composition  been  left  to  conjecture:  and  it  is  certain 
that  farmers  do  proceed  in  the  application  of  manures  with  better 
and  more  distinct  ideas  of  what  they  are  doing  and  what  they 
want.  They  now  know  the  reason  why  the  expensive  manures, 
potash  and  the  phosphates,  need  be  applied. 

§  7.  It  is  no  legitimate  argument  against  analysis  because  it  has 
not  accomplished  all  the  utility  which  may  have  been  claimed 
when  systematic  agriculture  was  younger.  If  farmers  and  chemists 
will  only  look  at  results,  or  study  the  history  of  agriculture  for  the 
last  fifty  years,  they  will  feel  satisfied  that  its  advancement  has 


.|,S  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

been  due  in  the  main  to  chemistry,  and  in  part  to  the  direct  results 
of  the  analysis  of  soils.  Indeed,  no  real  or  rational  progress  could 
have  been  made  until  much  had  been  done  in  this  line  of  chemical 
research.  The  importance  of  minute  proportions  of  the  alkalies, 
alkaline  earths  and  phosphates  could  never  have  been  understood 
without  these  analyses.  Experiments  too,  have  grown  out  of 
chemical  results  of  the  highest  importance.  The  use  of  o^'ganic 
matter  has  been  established  by  experiments  suggested  by  analysis. 
It  has  been  proved  that  organic  matter  is  equally  important  with 
inorganic,  and  moreover,  must  exist,  or  be  furnished  and  exist  in 
it  in  a  certain  condition.  No  soil  is  absolutel}'  destitute  of  organic 
mattei-,  but  in  the  South  its  proportion  is  often  too  small.  Planters 
in  the  Southern  States  now  understand  why  marl  is  injurious  in 
certain  cases.  They  know  how  to  prepare  it  for  use  to  avoid  dis- 
astrous results;  and  all  this  must  be  traced  to  the  benefit  of  the 
analysis  of  soils.  Show  the  planter  a  field  which  is  deficient  in 
organic  matter,  and  his  application  of  marl  will  be  governed  by 
this  fact.  He  knows  that  if  a  large  dressing  is  applied,  his  objects 
will  be  defeated.  He  will  proceed  and  make  a  compost  of  organic 
matter  and  marl;  and  he  knows  that  thus  prepared,  he  may  use 
raai'l  freely  on  poor  land. 

Now,  accident  could  not  have  put  him  in  possession  of  this  im- 
portant practical  precept.  He  would,  and  did  find  out,  that  heavy 
dressings  of  marl  were  injurious  to  crops  for  one  or  more  years; 
but  he  would  never  have  discovered  that  it  was  due  to  a  deficiency 
of  organic  matter.  This  main  fact  was  determined  by  analysis, 
and  moreover,  it  led  to  the  settlement  of  the  question  respecting 
ihe  condition  of  the  matter  itself,  and  it  is  well  established  that  it 
is  necessary  that  it  should  be  oxidized,  and  pass  to  the  condition  of 
an  acid,  in  which  state,  it  combines  with  the  alkalies  and  eaiths, 
and  forms  soluble  bodies.  These  organic  salts  become  the  food 
of  the  crop.  The  fact  then,  that  organic  matter  is  indispensable 
to  a  fertile  soil,  together  with  the  reason  wdiy,  has  grown  out  of 
analysis.  But  this  is  only  one  result.  It  may  be  said  generally, 
that  all  the  most  important  experiments  in  the  growth  of  crops 
have  grown  out  of  the  analysis  of  soils.  For  example,  it  was  found 
that  the  phosphates  and  alkalies  formed  only  small  fractions  of  all, 
even  fertile  soils,  and  it  occurred  as  it  naturally  would  to  philo- 
sophical minds  whether  such  small  doses  were  really  necessary  to 


NOETH-CAEOLINA   (JEOLOGICAL   SUEVET.  "iB 

the  ripening  and  perfection  of  a  crop.  Experiments  to  settle  this 
important  and  interesting  question  were  set  on  foot  to  determine 
it,  and  they  have  resuUed  in  showing  clearly  and  satisfactorily  that 
however  little  they  may  be,  they  are  still  essential  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  seed.  Now,  what  has  grown  out  of  analyses  must  be  re- 
garded as  it  respects  utility,  as  a  part  and  parcel  of  the  original 
investigation,  and  analysis  thus  viewed  cannot  be  regarded  in  other 
light  than  as  having  been  eminently  useful.  It  was  necessary  that 
it  should  precede  and  prepare  the  way  for  this  experimental  work, 
and  we  may  probably  assume  that  unless  the  preparatory  steps  had 
been  taken,  those  important  questions  would  not  have  been  pro- 
pounded. 

The  great  objection  which  has  been  made  to  the  utility  of  analysis 
is  that  chemistry  is  incompetent  to  detect  the  certain  minute  and 
essential  elements  of  soils,  without  which  the  plant  cannot  perfect 
itself,  niKj  exist  in  the  soil  in  suflficient  quantities,  and  yet  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  chemist's  skill  to  detect  them. 

Chemical  analysis  for  example  pretends  not  to  find  a  less  fraction 
than  —  of  a  ffrain  ;  an  acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep  will  weigh  2,000,000 
pounds  ;  an  ordinary  wheat  crop  will  takeoff  200  pounds  of  mineral 
matter,  allowing  one  half  to  be  phosphates  and  we  have  only  one 
twenty  thousandth  part  composed  of  that  part  or  quantity;  and 
hence,  too  small  for  the  chemist  to  find.  Four  hundred  pounds  of 
guano,  conainingsay  one-fifth  phosphates  applied  to  an  acre  entirely 
destitute  of  phosphates,  would,  it  is  claimed  make  all  the  difference 
there  is  between  a  good  crop  and  no  crop  at  all ;  but  this  eighty 
pounds,  distributed  through  (2,000,000)  two  million  pounds  of  soil 
would  be  too  trifling  a  quantity  for  the  present  state  ot  chemical 
analysis  to  detect.  Besides,  it  is  farther  said  he  does  not  need  it,  it 
being  too  expensive  and  the  general  deductions  of  the  chemist  are  of 
more  value  to  him  than  any  particular  analysis  of  his  soil.  Grant- 
ed ;  bat  then,  these  very  deductions  are  either  the  results  of  analy- 
sis, or  of  experiments  which  analyses  have  suggested  and  called  for. 
There  can  be  nothing  truer,  and  hence  to  discard  analysis  on  the 
grounds  stated  is  unjust  to  Liebig,  Johnson,  Mulder  and  others. 
Then  again  it  is  said  that  a  Boston  chemist  found  a  barren  sand  of 
New  Hampshire,  with  the  same  composition  as  anotiier  specimen 
from  the  rich  Sciota  Valley.  This  we  dolibt ;  be  that  as  it  may,  the 
subsequent  paragraph  shows  very  distinctly''  the  prominent  differ- 


W  NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOaiCAL   SUBVET. 

ences  of  the  two  examples  of  soil.  The  'New  Hampshire  barren 
sand  was  extremely  coarse,  the  Sciota  Yalley  soil  on  the  contrary 
extremely  fine.  No  one  denies  the  importance  of  texture  in  a  soil 
and  the  chemist  who  should  neglect  to  state  the  ditferences  between 
two  so  much  alike  in  the  quantity  of  sand,  would  omit  a  very  im- 
portant piece  of  information.  It  would  belong  to  a  series  of  gen- 
eral deductions  which  the  chemist  has  formed  from  either  his 
chemical  and  mechanical  analyses  of  soils. 

Again,  the  statement  that  one-fifth  of  the  four  hundred  pounds 
of  guano,  consisting'of  phosphates  distributed  through  2,000,000 
pounds  of  soil,  makes  all  the  diflPerence  between  a  good  ci'op  and 
no  crop  at  all,  is  an  assumption.  In  the  case  of  the  application  of 
guano,  it  is  only  fair  to  assume  that  the  400  pounds  added  is  just 
so  much  addition  to  the  fertilizing  matter  already  in  the  soil,  and 
in  most  cases  we  have  never  found  an  exception  to  this  result,  that 
phosphates  mfify  be  detected  in  1000  grains  of  any  soil.  We  are 
unbelievers  in  the  doctrine  that  80  pounds  of  pliosphates  only  in 
2,000,000  pounds  of  soil  would  produce  a  crop  of  wheat  or  any 
other  crop  ;  that  it  will,  however,  or  will  not,  requires  to  be  tested 
by  experiment. 

§  S.  The  correct  analysis  of  a  soil  is  by  no  means  a  short  and 
easy  task,  as  many  have  supposed,  or  seem  to  suppose,  when  they 
forward  their  packages  to  the  laboratory,  and  seem  to  expect  re- 
plies within  twenty-four  hours,  at  least. 

That  the  reader  may  entertain  more  rational  views  of  the  work 
than  is  usuaUy  expressed  by  our  correspondents,  we  give  in  part 
the  remarks  upon  this  subject,  by  Dr.  0.  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston.* 

"The  analysis  of  soils  is  so  difficult,  and  requires  so  much  time, 
that  the  chemist  is  often  discouraged,  and  if  paid  for  by  the  planter, 
it  would  cost  more  than  he  could  well  afford.  Hence,  trustworthy 
analyses  must  be  made  at  the  public  expense,  under  the  direction 
of  government.  The  manner  in  which  the  present  analyses  have 
been  made,  demands  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  days,  and  no 
chemist  can  properly  attend  to  more  than  one  analysis  at  a  time. 
I  state  this  to  correct  erroneous  impressions  on  the  subject.  In  de- 
termining the  ingredients  of  a  soil,  we  have  to  work  on  a  great 


*  Patent  office  report  for  1858— pp.  291,  293. 


NOKTS-CAROLTNA  GEOLOGICAL  STTRVET.  »1 

number  of  its  separate  portions,  sometimes  employing  100  grains 
in  the  analysis,  and  at  others  25,  while  to  separate  those  ingre- 
dients which  occur  sparingly,  we  employ  at  least  1,000  grains  for 
each  determination.  The  results  are  subsequently  reduced  to  per 
centage  in  the  tabulated  form.  In  the  first  place,  the  sample  has 
to  be  dried  at  a  moderate  temperature  in  a  current  of  dry,  warm 
air,  and  then  thoroughly  mingled,  so  that  the  successive  portions 
taken  for  analytic  processes  may  be  exactly  alike. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  organic  matter,  100  grains  dried  at 
212°  Fah.  are  burned  in  a  platinum  crucible,  when  the  loss  by 
combustion  and  volatilization  is  ascertained  by  decrease  of  weight. 
Then  the  soil  is  digested  with  chlorohydric  acid,  the  matters  solu- 
ble in  the  acid  are  ascertained  by  the  usual  method,  and  their  pro- 
portions stated.  Another  analysis  of  25  grains  is  next  taken  for 
analysis  by  entire  solution,  and  this  is  decomposed  by  fusion  with 
carbonate  of  soda  in  the  manner  employed  in  the  analysis  of  inso- 
luble silicious  minerals,  and  a  complete  analj'^sis  made,  all  the  in- 
gredients being  weighed  excepting  the  alkalies,  which  are  deter- 
mined by  difference,  while  their  relative  proportions  are  ascertained 
by  the  analysis  of  100  grains  of  the  soil  by  acids,  and  then  their 
ratios  are  computed  for  that  portion  which  had  been  analyzed  by 
fusion  with  soda. 

Again,  separate  portions  of  100  grains  each  are  employed  for 
the  determination  of  the  proportions  of  carbonic  and  phosphoric 
acids,  the  first  being  ascertained  by  expelling,  by  means  of  a 
stronger  mineral  acid,  in  a  proper  aparatus.  The  phosphoric  acid 
is  thrown  down  from  an  acid  solution  in  combination  with  peroxide 
of  iron,  lime  and  magnesia,  all  of  which  are  precipitated  by  arh- 
monia.  The  weight  of  these  substances  combined  is  first  ascer- 
tained, when  they  are  all  re-dissolved  and  the  oxide  of  iron  is 
separated  in  a  state  of  sulphide  of  iron,  which  is  again  converted 
into  peroxide  of  iron  by  nitric  acid,  and  re-precipitated,  and  again 
weighed,  whereby  the  proportion  of  phosphates  is  ascertained. 
This  is  again  checked  by  analysis  of  the  sulphide  of  ammonia  and 
solution  of  the  phosphates. 

Then  for  the  determination  of  sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  nitric 
acid,  ammonia  and  the  organic  acids,  we  operate  on  separate  lots 
of  soil,  each  weighing  1,000  grains.  Sulphuric  acid  is  precipitated 
by  means  of  nitrate  of  l)arytes ;  chlarine  by  nitrate  of  silver.;  nitric 


3^  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SUEVET. 

acid  is  tested  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  the  soil,  boiling  it  witli 
cblovoliydric  acid  and  gold  foil,  to  see  if  it  dissolves  any  gold,  and 
by  evaporation  of  the  aqueous  solution  to  dryness,  and  by  testing  the 
deiiao-ration  of  the  dry  residue  which  contains  oi-ganic  matters 
mixed  sometimes  with  a  minute  proportion  of  nitrate  of  potash. 
There  is  no  direct  mode  of  determining  the  proportion  of  .nitric 
acid  in  a  soil.     It  occurs  only  in  minute  proportions. 

The  organic  acids  of  the  soil,  crenic,  apocrenic  and  humic  acids 
are  separated  together  from  the  insoluble  humus  by  means  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  after  filtration 
this  solution  on  evaporation  to  dryness  will  give  the  weight  of 
these  acids,  with  some  phosphates,  which  are  always  dissolved  by 
the  ammoniacal  solution,  namely,  the  phosphates  of  lime  and 
magnesia. 

On  burning  the  organic  acids  these  phosphates  are  oblained,  and 
their  weight  deducted  from  the  combined  w-eight  of  the  organic 
matters  and  phosphates.  By  deducting  the  weight  of  the  soluble 
organic  acids  from  the  whole  weight  of  the  organic  matters,  we 
have  that  of  the  insoluble  humus  or  carbonaceous  matters.  We 
also  deduct  from  the  soluble  organic  acids  the  weight  of  the  am- 
monia and  determine  it  by  a  separate  process  on  another  1,000  grains 
of  soil.  The  ammonia  is  ascertained  by  digesting  distilled  water, 
acidulated  with  pure  hydrochloric  acid  with  1,000  grains  of  the 
soil  •  then  on  filtration,  evaporation  of  the  acid  aqueous  solution, 
and  the  addition  of  bi  chloride  of  platinum  solution,  we  obtain 
ammonia,  as  a  soluble  chloride  of  platinum  and  ammonia,  by 
which  it  is  easy  to  compute  the  proportion  of  ammonia  in  the 
organic  matter  of  the  soil  from  the  weight  of  the  double  chloride." 

We  have  pursued  for  the  most  part  the  foregoing  detailed 
methods,  the  results  of  which  are  usually  satisfactory.  Probably 
the  analysis  of  the  soil  of  the  swamp  lands  will  be  attended  with 
more  utility  than  those  of  the  midland  or  mountain  counties,  for 
it  determines  with  certainty  the  fact  whether  they  are  susceptible 
of  cultivation  or  not,  and  also,  it  determines  the  cause  of  their 
worthlessness. 

Furthermore,  as  it  regards  the  utility  of  analysis,  we  believe  that 
they  have  promoted  the  advancement  of  agriculture  in  an  eminent 
degree,  and  the  reason  why  agriculturists  and  certain  chemists 
decry  their  utility  is  owing  to  their  not  effecting  what  enthusiasts 


NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  23 

promised,  or  what  was  expected.  Too  high  expectations  when  un- 
fulfilled are  yerj  liable  to  produce  a  reactive  feeling  and  to  call 
out  sentiments  entirely  of  a  depreciating  character,  or  to  lead  j^ersons 
to  say  that  they  are  of  no  account.  But  until  thorough  analyses 
liad  been  executed,  a  correct  view  of  soils,  eitlier  practical  or 
theoretical,  could  never  have  been  obtained.  We  now  know  for  a 
certaintj^,  some  of  the  functions  of  a  soil,  and  it  is  a  great  deal  to 
know  that  the  most  important  elements 'of  growth  exist  only  in 
]ninute  quantities,  and  that  they  may  be  removed  in  the  course  of 
a  tew  years'  cultivation.  This  is  a  practical  fact,  and  could  not 
liave  been  guessed  out;  it  remained  to  be  determined  by  the  skill 
of  the  chemist  and  accurately  conducted  experiments. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  swamp  lands.     Their  mode  of  formation  and  geological  age. 

§  9.  It  is  maintained  that  soils  are  the  debris  of  rocks  which 
liave  been  foiming  from  the  earliest  periods  of  the  earth's  history. 
This  is  no  doubt  literally  true  ;  but  the  debris  has  been  subjected 
to  certain  changes,  particularly  those  of  place.  It  has  not  lain  by 
the  side  of  the  rock  from  w^hich  it  was  separated  in  but  few  in- 
stances, but  its  removal  or  change  of  place  has  been  excessive  in 
many  instances,  as  in  the  western  and  northern  States,  while  in  the 
South  that  agency  which  is  recognized  there  has  not  been  in  oper- 
ation here.  In  this  State,  no  currents  of  water  have  ever  sw^ept 
over  the  face  of  the  earth,  so  as  to  remove  the  soil  to  a  great 
distance  from  the  rocks  from  which  it  was  derived.  In  the  course 
of  time,  that  which  belongs  strictly  to  the  present  period,  however, 
a  partial  removal  to  distant  quarters  has  taken  place.  This  removal 
was  efi'ected  mostly  by  rivers  acting  locally  upon  banks  of  soil, 
which  by  little  and  little  were  transported  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  or 
to  inland  bays,  like  the  Albemarle  and  Palmico  of  our  coast. 

]^ow,  the  soils  during  the  act  of  removal,  were  subjected  to  the 


24  NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY, 

assorting  power  of  water,  whereby  the  coarser  parts  were  separa- 
ted from  the  finer  and  distributed  according  to  the  comparative 
gravity  ;  the  finer  particles  being  transported  farther  than  the 
coarse,  and  probably  in  different  directions,  both  laterally  and 
more  widel3^ 

The  present  operations  of  water  illustrate  in  part  tiie  nature  of 
those  by  which  removals  formerly  took  place.  "We  cannot  but 
notice  the  turbid  conditions  of  the  Roanoke,  the  Neuse  and  the 
Cape  Fear,  during  a  freshet.  It  is  due  to  the  soil  which  has  been 
lost  from  their  banks,  and  which  is  being  transported  seawards, 
but  which  must  subside  in  part,  before  the  waters  reach  their  des- 
tination. In  freshets,  the  low  ground?  are  inundated  with  this 
muddy  water,  and  it  frequently  happens  that  an  inch  or  more  of 
fine  soil  is  deposited  at  certain  places  which  are  favorably  situated, 
or  in  places  where  the  waters  are  unagited  by  the  rapid  current?. 
What  is  usually  seen,  however,  is  along  the  immediate  banks  of 
the  rivers,  and  it  is  not  unfrequently  the  case,  that  all  the  old  veg- 
etation, however  rank,  is  buried,  or  concealed  beneath  the  sedi- 
ment. But  in  addition  to  this  heavy  deposit,  there  is  still  a  finer 
one  which  is  carried  by  the  water  into  lateral  marshes,  and  this 
water,  though  robbed  of  a  part  of  its  burthen,  still  retains  tlie 
finest,  \yhich  slowly  settles  among  the  moss,  reeds,  grasses,  &c., 
which  belong  to  this  peculiar  formation.  These  waters  are  slowly 
drawn  off,  and  perhaps  even  remain  for  weeks,  and  are  only  dis- 
posed of  by  mid-summer,  by  evaporation,  and  during  the  time 
vegetation  is  active  while  it  is  receiving  the  fine  sediments  of  the 
ovei'flowing  rivers.  In  conditions  like  the  foregoing  we  probably 
find  the  best  swamp  soils  formed,  inasmuch  as  there  is  added  to 
to  the  growing  mosses  fine  sediments  which  become  the  basis  of 
the  best  of  soils,  and  which  are  intimately  intermingled  with  an 
abundance  of  fertilizing  matter  in  the  condition  of  peat. 

Such  is  the  process  by  which  the  best  swamp  lands  are  made, 
while  the  poorer  being  situated  where  only  the  white  assorted  sand 
has  access.  When  the  sand  and  vegetation  has  reached  a  certain 
bight,  or  has  attained  the  level  of  ordinary  freshets,  vegetation 
still  goes  on,  and  moss,  grass,  and  certain  herbaceous  plants  and 
trees,  still  grow,  until  the  surface  upon  which  thej'^  stand  is 
higher  than  the  margins.  The  whole  mass  of  vegetation  which 
grew  in  former  years  is  like  a  sponge,  and  it  is  at  all  times  nearly 


NOKTH-OAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   BUKVEY. 

atiirated  with  water.  In  this  condition  it  receives  no  further  addi- 
tion of  soil ;  it  is  a  mere  growth  of  water  living  vegetables  which 
maintain  their  place  bj  their  constitutional  adaptations.  This 
vegetation  is  divisible  into  two  parts,  the  dead  and  living;  the 
former  beneath,  the  latter  above.  This  status  quo  is  maintained 
solely  by  the  low  temperature  of  the  swamp.  All  the  vegetation 
below  is  as  it  were,  water  logged,  and  in  process  of  time  it  simply 
blackens,  as  it  is  a  water  charring;  and  when  it  has  become  peat 
it  nndei-goes  no  farther  change.  This  is  the  exact  condition  of 
many  swamps ;  above  they  consist  of  a  mass  of  vegetation  of  the 
poorest  plants,  the  mosses  and  coarse  grasses  ;  and  for  trees,  some 
pines  of  a  small  size,  and  many  bays  or  magnolias.  Let  such  a 
swamp  be  drained  and  it  subsides  from  a  one  to  two  feet;  a  change 
which  is  confined  to  the  upper  part.  In  early  days,  or  when  first 
forming,  sand  was  received  from  a  distance,  or  it  may  have  been 
laid  down  npon  an  old  sandy  sea  bottom.  But  it  has  generally 
happened  that  the  lower  parts  of  the  vegetable  mass  is  mixed  with 
sand,  showing  that  though  the  swamp  was  based  upon  a  sea  bot- 
tom ;  yet,  being  basin  shaped,  it  continued  for  a  time  to  receive 
materials  from  a  distance.  The  age  of  these  deposits  is  no  doubt 
recent.  They  repose  npon  the  eolian  sands,  and  generally,  so  far 
as  their  bottoms  have  been  exposed  for  examination,  they  belong 
to  most  recent  coast  deposits,  and  yet,  it  is  probably  true,  that  they 
extend  far  back  beyond  the  settlement  of  the  coast.  Still,  they  are 
ppoperly  modern  formations,  and  are  entirely  connected  with  the 
present  state  and  arrangements  of  the  present  line  of  coasts,  and 
the  river  systems  coming  in  from  the  interior. 

It  is  probably  true,  that  as  to  agricnltnral  valne,  it  will  prove 
that  those  which  are  the  highest  or  have  become  higher  than  tide 
water  by  growth  of  vegetation,  they  are  of  less  value  while  those 
which  are  so  situated  that  they  receive  the  overflowings  of  rivera 
imtil  a  late  period,  and  hence  are  last  formed,  are  the  most  valuable-. 
Hyde  county,  for  example,  is  only  about  4  or  5  feet  above  storna 
tides.  The  Dover  swamp  in  Craven  county,  we  believe,  is  nearlj 
60  feet ;  the  first  is  excellent  land,  and  the  latter  worthless,— or 
comparatively  so.  In  the  same  field,  however,  with  these  poor 
swamps  we  may  often  find  fertile  islands  capable  of  bearing  heavj 
crops  of  corn.  The  means  by  which  such  islands  may  be  recog- 
nised will  be  stated  farther  on. 
2 


26  NOKTH-GASOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Geographical  position  of  the  swamp  lands,  and  their  extent  in  North-Carolina. 
Defective  information  in  the  public  archives  of  the  State.  The  Savannah 
lands,  etc. 

§  30.  The  lands  under  consideration  are  confined  to  the  eastern 
counties.  They  scarcely  touch  thg  long,  narrow  sounds  which 
ekirt  the  Atlantic.  Large  bodies  extend  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
miles  from  the  ocean,  and  occupj'  wide  belts,  not  far  from, 
and  parallel  \.  ith,  the  principal  rivers.  Their  shape  is,  however, 
irregular,  and  it  will  be  seen  by  the  inspection  of  any  correct  map, 
that  thej^  must  occupy  ground  considerably  higher  than  the  beds 
of  the  river  which  they  skirt.  They  are  reservoirs  of  water,  and 
numerous  streams  issue  from  them  on  all  sides  which  find  their 
way  to  the  river  channels  by  exceedingly  crooked  routes  or  courses. 

§  11.  The  most  northern  swamp  is  a  continuation  of  the  great 
Dismal,  lying  partly  in  Virginia  and  partly  in  IS^orth-Carolina,  and 
which  occupies  large  tracts  in  Currituck  and  Pasquotank  counties. 
Pasquotank  river  rises  in  this  swamp,  its  head  being  really  in  Lake 
Drummond,  in  Virginia.  Towns  and  numerous  hamlets,  however, 
are  planted  in  the  great  Dismal  Swamp.  It  is  traversed  by  roads, 
and  few  in  passing  through  this  section  of  country  would  suspect 
they  were  in  this  swamp,  famous  the  world  over  for  its  ominous 
name. 

The  largest  territory  of  swamp  lies  in  Washington,  Tyrrell, 
Beaufort  and  Hyde  counties.  Its  whole  length  is  rather  more  than 
^8eventy-five  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  at  least  forty-five  in  the 
•widest  part  from  north  to  south.  It  lies  between  Albemarle  Sound, 
'tiie  lower  Roanoke  River,  and  Pamlico  Sound,  Pamlico  and  Tar 
■Rivers.  The  most  eastern  parts  of  this  great  tract,  however, 
should  be  regarded  as  tnarsh  land^  and  subject  to  overflow  during 
•Btorra  tides.  Like  all  swamp  lands,  the  middle  is  higher  by  a  lew 
■feet  thain  the  margins.  It  terminates  westward,  near  Washington, 
(Beaufort  county.  This  great  body  differs  from  other  swamps  by  a 
more  uniform  continuity,  and  a  more  perfect  level,  and  with  fewer 
%nowles,  aaUed  tVZ«7it^«.  Hyde  County,  for  example,  is  level  as  a 
Ihouse  floor,  and  as  even  as  a  well  cooetracted  gar«leQ.    It  is  but  a 


NORTH-CAKOUNA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  2|. 

few  feet  above  tide ;  too  few  to  give  depth  for  wells,  and  hence, 
water  for  cooking  is  supplied  mainly  from  cisterns  resting  upon 
the  ground.  This  swamp  has  four  shallow  lakes  of  considerable 
size.  The  largest  is  Matamuskeet,  which  is  twenty  miles  long. 
Lying  a  few  feet  lower  than  the  swamp  are  tracts  of  stiff  clay  soil, 
probably  as  good  for  wheat  as  any  in  the  State,  but  these  diverse 
kinds  are  never  intermingled ;  the  clay  is  a  kind  of  outlier  or 
border.  The  lands  of  this  great  swamp  have  become  famous  for 
the  large  crops  of  corn  they  produce.  They  are  called  the  Hyde 
county  or  Matamuskeet  lands. 

Again,  included  between  the  forks  of  Pamlico  and  Neuse  Elvers 
is  another  swamp  thirty  miles  long,  but  in  area,  it  is  less  than  an. 
eighth  of  the  Matamuskeet  Swamp  and  Pungo  Swamp. 

South  of  the  Neuse,  and  lying  in  Carteret  and  Jones  counties, 
there  is  another  immense  tract  of  swamp  land,  80,000  acres  of 
which  is  known  as  the  open  prairie  of  Carteret.  In  nearly  a  con- 
tinued belt  this  swamp  is  75  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  but  its 
width  is  less  than  the  Matamuskeet  swamp.  It  is  not  by  any 
means  perfectly  continuous.  It  admits  the  passage  of  road^,  but 
it  lies  nearly  upon  one  plane,  and  the  slight  inequalities  scarcely 
serve  to  divide  it  into  separate  sections. 

Dover  swamp  is  an  isolated  tract  some  fifteen  miles  in  length, 
and  is  crossed  by  the  Atlantic  Railroad. 

Onslow  and  Jones  counties  contain  a  part  of  the  great  Carteret 
tract.  This  tract,  at  its  western  extremity,  gives  origin  to  thp 
White  Oak  creek. 

Holl}'  Shelter  swamp  lies  parallel  with  east  Cape  Fear  river.  It 
begins  in  Onslow  county,  but  the  greatest  part  lies  in  New  Hano- 
ver county,  east  of  the  Wilmington  and  Weldon  Railroad. 

In  Brunswick  county  lies  the  Green  swamp.  It  is  rather  lower 
than  those  we  have  mentioned,  but  it  is  peculiar  in  having  numer- 
ous islands;  that  is,  rounded  hillocks,  but  slightly  elevated  above 
the  general  surface  of  the  swamp.  These  are  inhabited  by 
squatters,  who  live  by  basket-making,  and  by  general  plunder  of 
those  materials  which  can  be  turned  into  hominy,  hoe-cake  and 
a  little  bacon.  On  the  border  of  this  swamp  there  has  been 
formed  a beautifullake  with  clear  water,  and  known  as  Waccamaw 
lake,  and  from  which  flows  the  Waccamaw  river,  a  beatable  stream, 
though  it  is  liabl§  to,  be  J^locked  up  by  trees  and  dead  tinj^er. 


28  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVICY. 

Livingston's  creek  rises  in  this  swamp,  and  is  boatable  from  the 
Cape  Fear  to  the  crossing  of  the  Manchester  Railroad,  and  up 
which  the  tide  flows  twelve  miles,  rising  something  like  two  feet 
at  its  mouth.  Columbus  county  contains  large  bodies  of  swamp 
land,  but  not  so  continuous  as  the  Green  swamp  of  Brunswick. 

The  whole  number  of  acres  of  swamp  lands  in  the  State  is  at 
least  two  millions,  of  which  the  State  owns  one  million  jive  hundred 
thousand.  This,  however,  does  not  include  the  marsh  lands  bor- 
dering the  sounds.  There  are  also  smaller  tracts  owned  by  indi- 
viduals, of  considerable  value,  in  all  the  counties  we  have  named. 
There  is,  however,  a  deficiency  of  statistics  and  records  of  surveys, 
and  although  the  swamp  lands  are  vastly  important,  the  archives 
of  the  State  furnish  reallv  no  information  of  value.  Private  indi- 
viduals who  are  personally  interested  in  large  tracts  of  those  lands, 
have  furnished  all  the  reliable  information  we  possess  relative  to 
them. 

In  contrast  with  the  swamp  lands,  we  may  briefly  notice  the 
Savannah  lands.  These  are  beautiful,  open  and  level  spaces,  cov- 
ered now  with  broom  grass.  We  have  not  been  told  what  they 
produced  in  early  times.  The  largest  in  the  State  lie  on  both  sides 
of  the  Wilmington  and  Weldon  Railroad,  in  the  county  of  Kew 
Hanover,  and  not  far  above  Wilmington.  A  traveler  passing  over 
the  road  in  the  day  time,  will  admire  their  beautiful  surfaces, 
though  they  are  not  covered  with  brilliant  flowers  and  the  more 
valuable  crops  of  cereals. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

Temperature  of  soils.     Distribution  and  circulation  of  heat 

§  12.  Every  plant  and  every  crop  requires  a  certain  temperature 
for  its  perfection ;  not  that  it  requires  exactly  such  a  number  of 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  but  crops  and  plants  require  for  perfection 
a  limited  range  of  temperature,  and  this  limited  range  may  be 


NOBTH-CAKOLmA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVEY. 


Si 


regarded  in  the  light  of  a  special  latitude.  The  source  of  heat  is 
the  sun.  Its  ra3^s  penetrate  or  affect  the  soil  in  this  latitude  to  the 
depth  of  probably  100  feet.  At  this  depth  a  thermometer  would 
remain  stationary  the  whole  year,  being  changed  neither  in  sum- 
mer nor  winter.  The  summer's  heat  will  not  cause  it  to  rise,  nor^ 
the  winter's  cold  to  fall.  In  this  space,  in  consequence  of  the^ 
continued  action  of  the  sun's  rays  in  spring  and  summer,  heat 
accumulates,  especially  in  the  upper  beds  of  soil,  and  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  as  the  fall  and  winter  set  in,  receive  from  beneath,  the 
heat  which  has  accumulated.  The  surface  layers  become  cold  as 
autumn  advances,  but  beneath,  the  store  which  has  accumulated 
keeps  the  roots  warm,  and  probably  tempers  or  mitigates  the  cold 
above.  But  the  cold  season  expends  the  stock,  and  when  the 
spring  comes  round  with  its  showers,  its  buds  and  flowers,  the  sun's 
heat  is  found  to  be  penetrating  again  the  depths  of  soil  with  the 
same  intensity  as  in  former  years.  It  cannot  be  affirmed  that  the 
season  begins  with  a  portion  of  the  old  stock  of  heat  remaming, 
for  in  that  case  there  would  be  ultimately  a  great  excess  of  heat 
in  the  soil.  Each  year's  observations  give  the  same  average  results 
in  the  same  latitude. 

In  the  spring  and  summer  the  accumulation  has  a  certain  uni- 
formity of  increase  and  decrease.  The  increase  reaches  its  maxi- 
mum by  the  middle  of  August,  when  the  heat  of  the  soil  diminishes, 
though  sensibly,  the  temperature  of  the  air  remains  for  a  week  or 
two  much  the  same  as  in  the  first  part  of  the  month.  The  stock 
of  heat  is  gradually  expended.  The  winter  is  undoubtedly  milder 
and  softer  in  consequence,  and  vegetation  is  thereby  less  exposed 
to  injurious  extremes  of  cold,  especially  their  roots,  which  will  be 
preserved  alive  in  many  instances,  though  the  stem  may  be  killed. 

Surfaces,  however,  are  affected  differently.  Water  becomes 
heated  much  less  than  the  soil,  and  to  a  certain  extent  we  are  safe 
in  affirming,  that  its  penetration  is  governed  by  the  dryness  of  the 
surface  and  its  color.  A  wet  surface  having  the  character  of  a 
sponge,  will  remain  nearly  as  cold  as  a  water  surface.  The  princi- 
ple is  well  understood  ;  for  as  we  have  already  stated  water  evapo- 
rates at  all  temperatures,  but  it  cannot  evaporate  in  the  total  ab- 
sence of  heat,  but  however  cold  It  may  be,  the  vapor  which  rises 
absorbs  a  certain  amount  of  heat.  The  heat  of  a  body  saturated 
with  water  is  kept  cold  by  the  escaping  vapor.      Pour  ether  upon 


W  :^M?%AS6tSX   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Land,  or  any  other  substance  which  vaporises  rapidly,  and  a  great 
degree  of  cold  is  felt.  The  hand  parts  with  its  heat  or  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called,  its  caloric,  and  it  is  precisely  so  with  soil,  with  a 
sponge  and  the  swamp  lands  of  the  Eastern  counties.  It  is  to  the 
coldness  of  the  surface  or  the  vegetable  mass  caused  by  evapora- 
tion, that  it  has  been  preserved,  and  by  which  it  is  kept  cool.  The 
swamp  lands,  however,  have  a  double  protection  ;  first,  a  thick  for- 
est, and  an  under-growth  of  water  shrubs  or  grasses,  and  then  the 
man'fle  of  water  for  a  part  of  the  year,  or  for  the  whole  year,  a 
fountain  of  water  which  is  sufficient  to  feed  the  spongy  turf,  or 
mosses  of  the  surface.  If  water  escapes  in  vapor  from  the  surface, 
it  is  instantly  supplied  with  more,  just  as  a  sponge  is  kept  wet  when 
its  base  rests  in  water  and  its  temperaiure  will  not  rise  until  all  the 
water  is  evaporated.  The  following  experiments  establish  the  fore- 
going statements : 

On  the  21st  ot  April,  between  9  and  10  A.  M.,  the  temperature 
of  the  air  was  72. 

The  temperature  of  a  water  covered  surface  64°. 

That  of  a  boggy  place  in  the  sun  10  feet  distant,  64°. 

At  another  similar  place,  62°. 

And  at  a  wet  grassy  surface  shaded  in  part,  62°. 

Temperature  of  the  soil  imperfectly  drained,  68°. 

Temperature  of  a  light  colored  granite  soil  well  drained  70°. 

Temperature  of  a  red  soil  well  drained  at  the  surface,  74°. 

Its  temperature  six  inches  deep,  68°. 

Temperature  of  a  black  soil  at  the  surface  90°  ;  3  inches  beneath 
82° ;  6  inches  beneath  80°  ;  showing  a  gradual  penetration  of  heat 
downwards.  In  January  22d,  the  temperature  ^f  the  air  was  41°  ; 
temperature  of  falling  rain  4.*^° ;  temperature  of  the  earth  44°  at  the 
depth  of  6  inches.  The  wet  surfaces  are  invariable  colder  then 
than  the  dry  ;  the  light  are  colder  than  the  colored  ;  and  the  black 
warmer  than  either. 

The  black  surfaces  were  made  so,  by  fine  charcoal  which  was  in- 
termingled with  a  giay  granite  soil. 

The  black  soils  of  the  swamps  when  laid  dry  become  sufficiently 
warm  for  the-perfection  of  indian  corn  even  when  water  stands  in 
the  fuiTOws  a  part  of  the  season. 

The  preservation  of  the  body  of  vegetable  matter  forming  the 
swamp  lands  is  due  to  two  causes :  1st,  low  temperature  ;  2d,  the 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA    GEOLOGICAL   SURVET. 

exclnsion  of  air  containing  oxygen,  which  is  the  agent  which  com- 
bines with  the  organic  matter  and  forms  with  them  linmic,  crenic, 
apocrcnic  acids,  and  which  in  their  turn  combine  with  anjmonia, 
lime,  magnesia,  and  iron,  and  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  food  of 
plants. 

The  temperature  of  the  earth  from  January  22d  to  April  21st  has 
advanced  from  41°  to  68°-70°.  The  color  causing  an  increase  ac- 
cording to  its  depth  ;  and  black  soil  at  the  depth  of  6  inches  reach- 
ing 80°. 

At  a  later  period  it  is  sometimes  found  to  rise  to  120°  when  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  when  a  marsli  near  by  was  only  67°. 

From  the  foregoing  facts  we  may  readily  surmise  what  is  needful 
to  be  done  to  increase  the  surface  as  well  as  bottom  heat.  The 
most  rude  savage,  if  he  had  any  idea  at  all  respecting  indian  corn, 
would  never  plant  it  in  a  wet  place  ;  he  would  select  a  dry  surface. 
But,  having  done  this,  it  is  not  certain  that  in  everj^  case  it  would 
be  possible  to  increase  the  heat  of  the  soil  by  artificial  means. 
However,  as  dark  soils  become  warm  in  proportion  to  their  depth 
of  color,  we  may,  under  favorable  circumstances,  mix  black  sub- 
stances with  the  soil,  such  as  char  coal  and  peat.  Wheat  grows 
better  on  a  stiff  red  soil  than  a  stiff  light  one.  In  most  cases  the 
color  demonstrates  that  chemical  action  has  progressed  farther 
than  in  a  light  colored  soil.  In  the  former  the  iron  has  become,  at 
least  in  a  part  of  it,  saturated  with  oxygen.  One  part  may  remain 
in  a  protoxide;  and  if  there  is  organic  matter  in  the  soil  this  is 
certainly  the  case,  as  it  deoxidizes  the  peroxide,  a  change  which  is 
supposed  to  be  a  very  important  one  in  reference  to  the  formation 
of  ammonia  in  the  soil.  In  connexion  with  the  subject  of  cold 
and  wai'm  soils,  we  may  state  a  beautiful  compensation  with  regard 
to  the  distribution  of  heat.  The  loss  of  heat  by  evaporation  has 
been  fully  stated,  but  it  may  not  have  occnred  to  the  common 
reader  that  the  reverse  takes  place  when  this  vapor  condenses 
again  as  it  is  carried  landward,  and  as  the  air  hovers  over  the  soil 
with  its  load  of  water,  every  object  cooler  than  itself  is  moistened 
with  dew,  and  the  heat  of  this  vapor  is  imparted  to  the  surfaces  on 
which  it  is  deposited.  When,  however,  equalization  of  tempera- 
ture between  the  air  and  bedewed  surfaces  has  taken  place,  it  is  no 
longer  formed.  The  properties  of  air,  whether  as  a  carrier  of 
moisture  and  heat,  or  as  a  moving  body,  are  eminently  adapted  to 


m  NOETH-CAKOLINA  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

the  wants  of  vegetation ;  they  are  what  the  farmer  wants  for  his 
crops;  doing  that  in  the  simplest  and  gentlest  manner  possible  to 
supply. tlie  necessities  of  the  infant  plant.  They  are  cooled  in  the 
hot  sunshine  by  evaporation,  and  warmed  by  the  dews  of  the 
evening,  and  are  thereby  saved  from  the  chills  which  the  absence 
of  the  sun  tend  to  produce.  Water,  as  most  persons  on  reflection 
will  perceive,  is  a  material  proper  to  our  earth  as  much  as  oxygen, 
silex  or  gold  ;  but  heat  is  in  one  sense  a  foreign  product,  not  to  call 
it  matter,  originating  in  the  operation  of  forces  peculiar  to  matter. 
The  great  source  of  heat  which  the  outward  parts  of  the  earth 
enjoys  is  derived  from  the  sun.  It  is  distributed  by  numerous 
agencies,  but  its  nature  is  such  that  the  heat  of  one  year  passes  to 
the  celestial  spar-es,  and  what  is  enjoyed  the  next  is  a  new  emana-: 
tion  from  the  sun  and  from  the  active  agencies  of  earth.  It  is  not, 
then,  like  water,  preserved  from  year  to  year  by  a  conservative 
force ;  but  we  are  indebted  for  its  continuation  to  the  constant 
action  of  the  sun  and  the  terrestial  forces  which  are  appointed  to 
furnish  it  from  their  store  houses. 

These  remarks,  we  are  aware,  have  no  connexion  with  swamp 
lands  that  we  can  perceive,  and  still  they  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
entirely  useless,  especially  wiien  taken  in  connexion  with  the  re- 
marks concerning  the  conservation  of  water  and  its  perpetual 
residence  upon  the  earth's  surface  and  connexion  with  the  atmos- 
phere. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


Swamp  lands  divided  into  six  districts.  The  Dismal  swamp  district  has  not 
been  explored.  Diversity  of  composition  of  these  lands.  Elevated  in  the 
middle. 

§  13.  The  swamp  lands  of  North-Carolina  may  be  regarded  as 
forming  six  districts.  The  first  beginning  on  the  north,  is  the  Dismal 
swamp,  which  lies  both  in  Virginia  and  North-Carolina.      The 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  fH 

second  is  the  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  swamp  district,  lying  be- 
tween the  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds.  This  large  tract  is  of  a 
quadrangular  form  and  occupies  large  areas  in  Tyrrell,  Hyde, 
Washington  and  Beaufort  counties,  and  probably  has  the  largest 
acreage  of  any  swamp  in  the  State.  It  is  also  the  type  of  all  the 
rest,  and  will  by  itself  represent  every  variety  of  this  kind  of  land 
which  is  found  in  either  of  the  others. 

The  third  is  Bay  river  district,  lying  between  Pamlico  and  Neuse 
rivers,  both  of  which  in  their  lower  reaches,  swell  out  into  wide 
bays. 

The  fourth  is  Carteret  county  district,  lying  between  the  Neuse 
and  Bogue  and  Core  sounds.  In  this  lies  the  great  open  prairie 
tract  of  eighty  thousand  acres,  and  which  is  owned  mostly  by  the 
State. 

The  fifth  is  the  Holl}^  Shelter  swamp,  including  Angola  bay,, 
lying  between  'New  river  and  the  East  Cape  Fear. 

The  sixth  is  Green  swamp,  lying  mostly  in  Brunswich  county. 

The  Dismal  swamp  district  has  not  been  sufficiently  examined 
to  enable  us  to  speak  definitely  with  respect  to  its  agricultural 
character.  It  is  believed  to  furnish  the  characteristics  of  the  other 
districts.  A  single  analysis  of  a  specimen  of  its  soil  in  the  early 
part  of  the  survey,  and  which  was  procured  within  a  few  miles  of 
Eh'zabeth  City,  gave  results  closely  resembling  those  taken  from 
Hyde  county. 

The  examination  of  the  second  district  has  been  much  more  ex- 
tensive, having  procured  samples  of  soils  from  all  sides  of  this 
extensive  tract.  This  we  have  regarded  as  particularly  worthy  of 
attentive  examination  and  illustration,  as  it  furnishes  the  best  types 
of  soil  with  which  the  others  may  be  compared.  Those  of  Hyde 
county  are  the  best  known,  and  when  it  is  found  that  a  soil  has  a 
composition  similar  to  those  of  this  county,  we  are  sure  that  they 
will  be  productive. 

It  is  not  designed  to  intimate  in  the  foregoing  statement,  that 
this  large  tract  has  been  crossed,  or  traversed  extensively.  It  has 
been  examined,  however,  in  Tyrrell  county,  in  Hyde,  on  both  sides 
of  Matamuskeet  lake,  in  Washington  and  Beaufort  counties.  We 
have  samples  of  soil  which  no  doubt  represent  all  the  varieties 
which  occur  in  this  great  tract.  It  is  proper  to  observe  in  this 
place,  that  the  swamp  lands  of  this  State  present  as  much  diversity 


Pt  NORTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

in  composition  as  those  of  the  middle  or  western  connties.  For 
example,  as  it  regards  the  quantity  of  vegetable  matter ;  some  are 
composed  almost  exclusively  of  it,  while  in  others,  it  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  and  thereby  scarcely  differ  from  ordinary  soils.  We 
find  between  these,  extremes  of  every  imaginable  variety  in  the 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter,  though  to  the  eye  there  is  a  very  close 
resemblance.  Besides  in  the  counties  above  named,  there  are 
large  tracts  which  are  M'ell  adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat,  being 
composed  of  large  proportions  of  clay,  with  only  the  ordinary 
quantity  or  per  centage  of  organic  matter. 

There  is  still  another  interesting  fact  which  should  be  noticed  here 
inasmuch  as  it  is  applicable  to  all  the  large  tracts  of  swamp  land  ; 
it  is,  that  they  are  all  higher  in  the  middle  than  upon  the  borders. 
This  explains  the  fact  why  the  streams  all  flow  outward.  They  all 
originate  in  a  culminating  belt,  or  crown  ;  and  it  is  this  interior 
belt,  which  gives  in  analysis  the  great  excess  of  vegetable,  while 
the  outskirts  contain  a  greater  porportion  of  inorganic  matter.  This 
statement  however,  does  not  always  hold  good  ;  yet  it  is  so  common 
as  to  be  worthy  of  notice.  Hence  too  in  ditchiig,  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  cut  level  or  down,  so  as  not  to  run  out  in  its  progress 
towards  the  crown  of  the  swamp.  We  shall  also  expect  from  the 
foregoing  to  find  the  vegetable  matter  increasing,  and  perhaps  to 
be  approaching  to  that  extreme,  that  it  will  not  be  advisable  to  at- 
tempt to  bring  it  into  immediate  cultivation. 

The  miner,  in  his  trials  for  gold,  follows  if  possible  the  lead  to  the 
vien,  the  great  depository  of  metal ;  the  farmer  or  planter,  will  pro- 
ceed something  in  the  same  way,  trying  at  short  intervals  the  mass 
for  the  purp  se  of  determining  the  quantity  of  eai'th,  or  soil  which 
is  intermingled  with  the  vegetable  matter,  inasmuch  as  cultivation 
turns,  we  think,  on  the  quantity  which  it  contains,  at  least  in  the 
present  state  of  our  agricultural  knowledge. 

As  many  variations  exist  in  composition,  so  it  will  be  found  that 
there  will  necessarily  occur  equivalent  variations  in  value  In  or- 
der to  determine  the  value  of  any  part  of  the  uncultivated  sections 
they  should  be  compared  with  lands  under  cultivation  and  which 
have  been  proved  by  experiment.  Certainly  this  course  !nust  be 
regarded  as  the  safest,  though  we  believe  that  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  arrive  at  a  safe  conclusion  provided  the  proper  steps  are 
taken  to  determine  one  or  two  p"ints,  the  quantity  of  soil  in  the 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   (GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

mass,  and  its  condition  whether  it  is  fine  or  coarse,  or  is  made  np 
entirely  of  marine  sand.  In  this  case  it  certainly  is  better  than  an 
entire  absence  of  mineral  matter  ;  yet,  if  it  is  to  be  cultivated  other 
elements  must  be  added. 


CHAPTER  YII. 


Composition  of  swamp  lands  stated.      Hyde  county.      Natural  crop  is    Indian 
corn.     Number  of  plants  to  the  acre.     Quantity  raised. 

§  14.  The  composition  of  the  swamp  lands,  which  now  claims 
attention,  will  be  as  fully  stated  as  seems  to  be  necessary  for  a  full 
knowledge  of  their  peculiar  properties.  In  doing  this  it  is  regard- 
ed as  expedient  to  bring  together  all  the  analyses  which  have  been 
made  which  are  trust-worthy.  As  it  regards  those  which  were  given 
in  the  report  for  1856,  they  will  be  also  restated  as  they  have  been 
re-examined  and  additional  results  obtained,  which  were  necessary 
to  make  them  complete.  Hyde  is  an  ancient  county.  It  occupies 
the  eastern  part  of  the  2d  district  of  swatnp  lands  ;  is  elevated  only 
a  few  feet  above  the  tide  storms  of  the  coast.  The  marsh  lands 
everywhere  skirt  the  best  swamp  land,  but  they  are  never  included 
in  those  which  are  under  consideration,  even  such  parts  of  them 
which  are  only  rarely  overflowed  by  tides. ,  They  are  too  saline 
for  the  cereals,  or  the  line  meadow  grasses. 

It  is  in  this  county  that  the  durability  of  swamp  lands  has  been 
tested,  ihe  records  of  the  courts  and  reliable  tradition  show  that 
certain  tracts  have  been  under  constant  cultivation  over  a  century 
with  a  3'early  crop  of  grains,  principally  Indian  corn,  without 
showing  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  bushels  per  acre  or  any 
diminution  in  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is  rather  maintained  that 
they  improve  under  cultivation  ;  and  this  is  not  surprising,  because 
they  are  brought  to  a  condition  more  favorable  to  vegetation  in 
consequence  of  the  free  admission  of  air  and  the  disappearance  of 


36  NORTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

an  upper  surface  too  much  charged  with  vegetable  matter.  Ee- 
sides  it  becomes  more  compact,  and  is  better  able  to  support  the 
heavy  foilage.  In  a  loose  soil  the  roots  are  unable  to  sustain  the 
foilage  and  keep  it  upright  against  the  force  of  strong  winds  which 
sometimes  visit  the  low  counties.  The  roots  are  liable  to  be  broken 
or  injured  in  resisting  its  force.  Though  the  soil  is  still  to  be 
regarded  as  light  and  loose,  it  is  not  spongy,  and  water  rises  through 
it  as  in  other  soils,  though  moisture  is  favored  by  the  presence  of 
a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter. 

The  color  is  black  or  dark  brown,  as  already  indicated,  and  the 
whole  mass  near  the  surface  looks  as  if  it  was  composed  entirel}' 
of  vegetable  matter.  We  see  no  particles  of  sand  or  soil  in  it. 
On  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  ditches  a  light  gray,  or  ashy  soil 
is  discernable.  Indeed,  it  is  regarded  as  ashes,  and  is  so  called, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed  by  the  combustion  of  ancient 
beds  of  vegetable  matter.  The  cultivated  lands  of  Hyde  ai-e  not 
chaffy,  that  is  when  dry,  like  tinder  and  liable  to  take  tire  from  a 
spark  or  ignited  by  a  gun  wad.  There  are,  it  is  true,  tracts  lying 
in  connexion  with  them  of  this  character,  which  are  quite  limited, 
but  their  occurrence  does  not  affect  this  general  characteristic. 

The  following  substances  with  their  proportional  numbers  ex- 
press the  composition  of  a  soil  which  has  been  under  cultivation 
three  years.  The  tract  is  owned  by  Dr.  Long,  and  is  a  part  of  an 
old  plantation  which  has  been  under  cultivation  for  more  than  one 
hundred  years: 

Organic  matter,    46.10 

Silex,   43.00 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    6.40 

Carbonate  of  lime,    0.21 

Magnesia,    0. 12 

Potash,    0.16 

Soda,    '. 0.18 

Chlorine,  trace. 

Soluble  silex,    0.03 

Sulphuric  acid,  0.04 

Phosphoric  acid,    0.30 

Ammonia,    0.09 

Soluble  organic  matter, 2.00 

98.60 


NOKTH-CAKOLTNA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEYET.  ^ 

The  silex  of  tliis  soil  is  exceedingly  fine  and  of  a  drab  color.  It 
is  too  fine  to  detect  with  certainty  its  origin.  When  it  is  a  grade 
coarser,  it  frequently  contains  particles  of  mica  and  felspar,  indi- 
cating that  the  parent  rock  from  which  it  was  derived,  were  the 
common  granites  which  skill  the  low  country,  and  which  form  a 
distinct  belt,  running  nearly  north-east  and  south-west.  If  this 
earth  constituted  by  itself  the  main  body  of  soil,  it  would  be  too 
fine,  and  form  a  mass  too  compact  to  admit  the  free  penetration 
and  circulation  of  air.  In  this  respect  it  resembles  the  fine  grained 
soils  of  some  of  the  western  States,  and  which  are  easily  moved 
and  blown  into  clouds  by  strong  winds.  The  intermixture  of  veg- 
etable matter  makes  it  sufficiently  porous,  and  by  its  agency  pre- 
serves that  open  state  so  needful  for  the  promotion  of  chemical 
changes,  the  development  of  carbonic  acid,  the  deoxidation  of  the 
peroxide  of  iron  and  the  absorption  of  ammonia.  The  lime  does 
not  probably  exist  in  the  condition  of  a  carbonate;  it  is  the  state 
in  which  it  is  obtained ;  but  probably  as  it  exists  in  the  soil  it  is 
in  combination  with  an  organic  acid,  which  during  the  combustion 
is  converted  into  a  carbonate. 

The  alkalies  are  less  in  quantity  than  we  should  naturally  expect 
from  soils  so  productive. 

But  what  at  first  appears  remarkable,  is  the  small  quantity  of 
chlorine  and  sulphuric  acid.  Both  seem  to  be  nearly  absent;  it  is 
rarely  that  we  attempt  to  weigh  them.  Whether  their  absence  is 
due  to  the  original  wet  state  of  the  soil,  we  are  unable  to  form  an' 
opinion.  We  should  expect  to  find  chlorine  in  a  soil  so  near  the 
ocean  that  during  storms  it  must  be  taken  up  and  carried  inland, 
and  from  this  cause  it  would  be  expected  that  it  would  at  least 
appear  in  a  per  centage  as  large  as  in  soils  a  hundred  miles  from 
the  ocean. 

The  composition  of  the  subsoil  it  will  be  seen  differs  from  the 
former,  taking  a  quantity  two  and  ahalf  feet  from  the  top  from  the 
side  of  a  ditch  free  from  growing  vegetables  we  found  it  had  the 
following  composition : 

Water,    7.50 

Insoluble  organic  matter,    16.30 

Hunic  acid  or  soluble  organic  matter,   3. TO 

Silex,   59.88 


aa.  NOKTH-OAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Alumina,    7.90 

Peroxide   of  iron,    2.10 

Carbonate  lime,    50 

Magnesia,    32 

Phosphate  of  lime,    50 

Potash,    15 

Soda 12 

Silicic  acid,    14 

Ammonia, 09 

99.10 

The  color  of  the  subsoil  after  drying  is  brown  and  particles  of 
fine  sand  are  distinguishable.  It  often  shows  light  or  gray  patches 
which  are  regarded  as  ashes  derived  from  ancient  combustions.  It 
is  due  to  the  inorganic  matter  which  gives  a  lighter  color  to  the 
mass.  The  soluble  organic  matter  is  large  in  this  instance.  The 
quantity  of  ammonia  is  smaller  at  this  depth  than  at  the  surface. 

The  constitution  of  this  part  of  the  soil  is  excellent,  possessing 
all  the  elements  which  are  necessary  for  the  growth  of  crops.  The 
specimen  for  analysis  was  taken  about  midway  between  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  mass  of  soil ;  below,  it  preserved  the  same  com- 
position apparently  or  so  far  as  mechanical  exploration  could  furn- 
ish information,  tliough  it  is  probably  more  highly  charged  with 
soil  as  it  seems  to  increase  with  depth.  But  taking  the  whole  mass 
of  soil  which  is  about  six  feet  deep  at  this  part  of  the  plantation 
and  not  less  elsewhere,  there  is  in  sight  a  large  store  house  of  mat- 
ter to  sustain  the  crops,  or  any  future  vegetable  growth. 

§  15.  This  plantation,  which  has  been  under  actual  cultivation  for 
a  period  sufficiently  long  to  test  most  thoroughly  the  capacity  of 
the  Hyde  county  soils  for  endurance,  is  at  present  ihe  property  of 
Dr.  Long  of  Lake  landing.  Its  ownership  can  be  traced  back  for 
six  generations,  and  the  crops  which  have  been  removed  have  ne- 
cessarily been  confined  to  the  cereals  and  probably  Indian  corn, 
with  an  occasional  crop  of  wheat,  which  is  cultivated  for  the  pur- 
pose of  occupying  the  land  with  something  more  profitable  than  a 
heavy  growth  of  weeds.  It  is  necessary  they  should  be  excluded 
by  occupation. 

The  composition  of  a  sample  of  this  soil,  which  has  been  so  long 
under  the  plow,  has  been  determined  with  the  following  results  : 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  ^. 

Water,    8.90 

Sitex 59.00 

Insoluble  organic  matter,    18.80 

Humic  acid  or  soluble  organic  matter,    3.40 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    8.00 

Carbonate  of  lime,    0. 1 0 

Magmjsia,    0. 09 

Potash,    0.04 

Soda,    0.08 

Silicic  acid,    0.20 

Phosphate  of  lime,    0.62 

Sulphuric  acid,    trace. 

Chlorine,    trace. 

Ammonia,    0.25 

98.96 

This  soil  is  shown  to  contain  less  organic  matter  than  the  first, 
and  a  larger  proportion  of  silica.  The  tirst  element  must  necessarily 
diminish  under  cultivation  more  rapidly  than  can  be  accounted  for 
by  removal  in  the  crop.  It  is  consumed  by  exposure  to  the  ele- 
ments, undergoing  a  change  analogous  to  combustion,  and  which 
Liebig  has  termed  eremacausis. 

The  quantity  of  corn  which  is  cultivated  per  acre,  is  reckoned  by 
the  number  of  plants  allowed  to  stand.  The  common  rule  in  Hj'de 
county,  we  believe  is  to  cultivate  fourteen  thousand  per  aci'e;  and 
it  is  common  to  allow  two  or  three  plants  to  grow  in  a  hill.  A  crop  . 
made  up  or  consisting  of  such  a  number  of  plants  per  acre  will 
give  a  stranger  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  capabilities  of  the  soil. 
But  it  should  be  observed  that  the  immense  growth  of  foilage  with 
stalks  is  somewhat  out  of  portion  to  the  grain,  and  it  appears,  that 
maize,  growing  in  a  very  rich  soil,  runs  somewhat  to  foilage,  though 
not  to  the  excess  which  is  observed  in  oats,  wheat  and  other  cereals. 
The  hight  of  the  corn,  upon  an  average,  is  12  feet  high.  The  grain 
is  rather  lighter  also  than  northern  or  western  corn,  and  the  ears, 
taken  as  a  whole,  appear  rather  less  than  when  grown  upon  soil 
with  less  vegetable  matter. 

The  usual  crop  is  between  10  and  12  barrels  of  5  bushels,  to  the 
acre.  If  heavy  winds  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  or  other 
^ents  act  unfavorably,  it  will  be  diminished  to  9  or  10  barrels  per 
aere,  while  ia  favorable  seasons  it  reaches  twelve  barrels. 


40  NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  result  may  not  strike  a  person  as  remarkable ;  but  it  should 
be  considered  that  no  manure  is  called  for,  and  the  simplest  and 
cheapest  mode  of  cultivation  is  all  that  is  required  to  make  a  crop 
of  this  standard,  and  this  is  the  common  result,  without  an  expendi- 
ture in  money  and  labor  for  manure.  Therefore,  there  is  a  larger 
profit,  though  it  is  not  uncommon  to  obtain  a  larger  yieid,  but  it  is 
done  at  a  heavy  expence  in  fertilizers  and  labor. 

§  16.  The  soils  analyzed  as  stated  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs, 
were  taken  from  the  south  side  of  Matamuskeet  lake.  The  north 
side  is  usually  regarded  as  better  land.  It  is  not,  however,  fully 
established  that  this  opinion  is  well  founded.  The  diflPerences  are 
slight,  if  any.  The  composition  of  the  soil  of  the  north  side  is 
certainly  much  the  same,  as  we  believe.  The  following  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  composition  of  a  portion  of  soil  from  the  plantation  of 
Mr.  Burrows,  taken  at  a  depth  of  eight  inches.  It  had  been  under 
culture  for  three  years: 

Water,  12.30 

Insoluble  organic  matter, 38.80 

Humic  acid,  or  soluble  organic  matter,    3.20 

Peroxide  of  iron,    3.70 

Alumina,  5.10 

Silicic  acid,    0.40 

Carbonate  of  lime,    0.48 

Magnesia,    0.27 

Potash,    , .  0. 18 

Soda, 0.10 

Phosphoric  acid,    0.12 

Chloriae,  trace. 

Sulphuric  acid, trace. 

Ammonia,    20 

Silex,   34.60 

'W 

99'.05  4l 

The  lands  of  Hyde  follow  the  same  rule  respecting  the  presence 
of  chlorine  and  sulphuric  acid,  as  all  the  swamp  lands  of  the 
eastern  and  southern  counties.  Their  absence  is  not  satisfactorily 
accounted  for,  unless  it  is  due  to  excessive  moisture,  or  to  their 
removal  by  constant  contact  with  water.  The  timber  of  the  soils 
of  the  Matamuskeet  country  are  black  gum  and  cypress,  both  of  a 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL  'sURVEY.  4|^ 

large  size.  Large  pines  and  poplars  are  not  uncommon,  and  all 
are  regarded  as  indicative  of  a  rich  soil.  This  opinion  is  un- 
dftubtedly  true,  and  may  be  relied  upon.  It  is,  in  fact,  perfectly 
compatible  with  all  the  arrangements  and  conditions  required. 
While  the  timber  of  the  poor  tracts  bear  trees  of  a  small  size,  of  a 
different  kind,  appear  dwarfed  or  starved,  for  want  of  nutriment. 
The  poor  soils  also  bear  upon  their  surfaces  indications  equally 
compatible  with  the  conditions  in  which  they  are  connected,  but 
in  the  latter  it  is  perhaps  a  condition  which  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved. 

§  17.  It  will  be  useful  in  passing,  to  compare  the  swamp  lands 
with  the  prairies  of  Illinois,  or  any  other  tract  of  the  great  west, 
whose  characteristics  have  drawn  westward  so  many  emigrants 
from  New  England,  New  York  and  the  old  world. 

The  soils  of  the  prairies  have  a  great  natural  fertility,  and  which 
it  is  supposed  by  many  are  so  excessive  that  they  will  bear  culti- 
vation for  thousands  of  years,  though  not  without  the  aid  of  fer- 
tilizers. Large  tracts  in  Europe,  Lombardy,  for  example,  have 
yielded  crops  for  two  thousand  years.  But  Lombardy  yields  her 
crops,  and  has  done  so  from  time  immemorial,  by  the  aid  of  fer- 
tilizers, and  vrhich  are  husbanded  in  a  manner  and  with  a  care, 
which  is  unknown  out  of  that  country.  Calculations  are  made  to 
a  penny,  what  a  pound  of  any  given  fertilizer  is  worth.  It  is  a 
money  article.  The  long  period  during  which  Lombardy  and 
England  have  been  cultivated,  and  are  still  productive,  proves  the 
value  of  the  basis  of  the  soils  upon  which  agriculture  has  rested. 

§  18.  A  prairie  soil  of  Illinois  is  usually  black,  or  brownish 
black  and  friable,  from  an  intermixture  of  earthy  or  sandy  matter. 
It  has  a  basis  or  subsoil  of  a  stiff  yellowish  clay,  and  such  is 
the  nature  of  this  soil,  that  it  has  borne  a  succession  of  crops 
of  maize  for  thirty  years,  and  even  more,  without  manure.  These 
lands  are  better  adapted  to  maize  than  wheat,  and  partly  so  for  the 
same  reasons  that  this  crop  succeeds  better  in  all  the  swamp  lands 
than  wheat.  Besides,  the  open  prairies  are  swept  in  the  winter  by 
strong  chilling  winds,  which  injure  wheat  by  rooting  it  up.  Such 
influences  m.ust  bear  annually  upon  lands  thus  exposed.  The 
crops  of  com  are  larger  than  in  Hyde  county,  but  whether  they 
sell  for  as  much  money,  is  quite  doubtful.  A  prairie  crop  often 
reaches  a  iiundred  bushels  per  acre.    The  farmers  of  Hyde  seem 


42  NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

to  be  contented  with  60  bushels  per  acre,  and  at  the  same  time  we 
see  no  reason  wliy  they  too  miglit  not  increase  it  to  100  bushcj^s- 
The  composition  of  the  prairie  lands  furnish  some  differences,  but 
there  is  so  much  uniformity  that  they  appear  to  form  only  one 
class. 

§  19.  An  example  or  two  showing  the  composition  of  the  best  of 
the  class  will  suffice  for  a  comparison  with  the  Hyde  county  corn 
lands.     Thus,  the  best  kind  consists  of: 

Organic  matter  and  water  in  combination,   9.05 

Alumina, 3.38 

Oxides  of  iron, 4.30 

Lime, 54 

Magnesia,    35 

Potash,    19 

Soda,      08 

Phosphoric  acid,    10 

Sulphuric  acid,   08 

Carbonic  acid  and  traces  of  chlorine,   09 

100.00 
Ammonia,   41 

Containing  nitrogen,  34  Prof.  Voelcker. 

§  20.  Prof.  Yoelcker  remarks*  that  the  soil  is  not  rich  in  phos- 
phoric acid,  but  still,  there  is  an  ample  store  to  meet  all  the  re- 
quirements of  the  plants  usually  cultivated  upon  the  farm.  The 
great  and  important  distinction  in  the  composition  of  the  prairie 
soil  and  swamp  lands,  is  the  great  excess  of  vegetable  matter  in 
the  latter.  The  prairie  soil  possesses  no  advantages  in  point  of 
composition  with  respect  to  the  expensive  elements,  'phosphoric 
acid,  potash,  soda,  lime,  etc.  The  prairie  lands  must  necessarily 
require  fertilizers  at  an  early  day,  while  the  magazine  of  food  in 
the  swamp  lands  will  require  centuries  before  it  can  be  consumed, 
even  under  constant  cultivation. 

Another  variety  of  prairie  soil  analyzed  by  Prof.  Yoelcker  is  re- 
garded as  less  fertile  than  the  preceeding.    It  is  composed  of ; 


Prairie  farming  in  America,  hj  James  C.  Caird,  M.  P, 


NOBTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  *i8 

Organic  matter  and  water  of  combination,   5.76 

Alumina,    , 1.57 

Oxide  of  iron,    2.57 

Lime,    35 

Magnesia,    40 

Potash,    33 

Soda,    trace. 

Phosphoric  acid,    05 

Sulphuric  acid,    05 

Carbonic  acid,  and  traces  of  chlorine  and  loss,   ....  53 

100.00 

Ammonia,    0.31 

Containing  Nitrogen,    0.2.6 

Tlie  proportion  of  nitrogen,  says  Prof.  Yoelcker,  is  less  as  mighl; 
be  expected  from  the  smaller  quantity  of  organic  matter.  How- 
ever, two  tenths  per  cent,  is  regarded  as  a  large  proportion  though 
when  expressed  in  fractional  numbers  it  appears  insignificant,  yefc 
when  it  is  known  that  the  weight  of  soil,  ten  inches  deep  upon  an 
acre  amounts  to  a  thousand  tons  in  round  numbers,  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  in  an  acre  of  soil  existing  in  this  proportion  will  be 
about  two  tons.  A  crop  of  wheat  of  36  bushels  to  the  acre  with 
its  straw,  contains  fifty  two  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  a  crop  of  Swed- 
ish turnips  only  about  thirty-six  pounds. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  instructive  to  many  to  see  the  com- 
position of  a  rich  wheat  soil  of  Scotland  analyzed  by  Prof.  Ander- 
son.   It  is  from  Mid  Lothian  and  consists  of: 

Organic  matter  and  water,  .......,...,,.. 10.19 

Alumina, 6.93. 

Oxides  of  iron, ^ 5.17 

Lime, 1.22 

Magnesia, 1.08 

Potash,    0.3& 

Soda, 0.4a 

Phosphoric  acid,   .., 0.43. 

Sulphuric  acid, 0.04 

Silica, 71.55 

Water, 2.58 

Carbonate  acid  and  loss,.  ...^ 0.03 

100.00- 
Nitrogen^.  .. .  ..^»..^^.. ..... . ,. , ,..-......».       22. 


M  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVlfiT. 

§  21.  Several  analyses  of  swamp  soils  have  been  made,  which, 
at  the  time,  were  regarded  as  owned  by  the  State,  but  subsequent- 
ly we  were  informed  were  taken  from  the  lower  part  of  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi.  They  were  furnished  by  the  Hon.  B.  F.  Moore 
of  this  place.  It  is  impossible  to  find  marks  by  which  No.  1  may  be 
distinguished  from  a  Hyde  county  soil.  They  were  numbered  up 
to  seven.  No.  1  is  black  and  fine,  showing  that  the  vegetable 
matter  has  passed  into  the  condition  of  well  formed  peat.  It  gave, 
on  analysis : 

No.  1.  No.  3. 

Water,    U.50  2.50 

Organic  matter, 51.79  6.00 

Alumina  and  oxiron,    3.63  3.50 

Silex,    28.20  87.50 

Lime,    1.00  0.20 

Magnesia, 50  .10 

Potash,    07  undetermined. 

99.69  99.80 

No.  3  corresponds  to  some  of  our  best  gall  berry  lands,  which 
are  low  and  wet ;  it  has  a  drab  color,  and  a  fine  silicious  base,  and 
is  a  tolerable  good  soil. 

Another  which  is  still  more  sandy,  and  less  coherent,  resembles 
our  gall  berry  soils  and  must  rank  with  poor  soils.     It  consists  of: 

No.  6. 

Water,  2.00 

Organic  matter,    2.00 

Silex,   90.00 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,   4.00 

Lime,   8.40 

Magnesia, 0.06 

Potash  and  soda, undetermined. 

98.46 

The  organic  matter  of  No,  6  is  reduced  to  the  minimum  quantity 
of  excessively  sandy  soils. 

These  analyses  from  a  distant  part  of  our  country  are  introduced 
for  th'e  purpose  of  noticing  a  Dact  whida  is  not  uncommon  in  soils 


NORTH-GAROLINA   GEOLOGICAIi   SUBVEY:'  W 

of  this  class.  It  is  the  occurrence  of  poor  patches  in  the  midst  of 
No.  1,  which  is  a  rich  and  productive  soil.  But  these  spots  of  bar- 
renness bear  the  plant  until  it  is  a  foot  high,  when  it  turns  yellow 
and  dies.  This  kind  of  material  is  loose  and  chaffj ;  it  contains 
65  per  cent,  of  vegetable  matter,  but  it  is  loose  and  rather  coarse, 
and  probably  furnishes  one  reason  why  vegetation  dries  up  so 
early.  It  is  not  deficient  in  inorganic  matter,  but  growth  requires 
a  body  of  soil  which  has  firmness,  but  it  is  possible  that  these 
barren  places  contain  the  astringent  salts  of  iron  and  alumina. 
There  are  several  places  in  North-Carolina  where  the  vegetable 
matter  contains  an  acid  salt  of  iron,  which  destroys  corn  or  any 
other  vegetable  productions  when  it  is  placed  in  contact  with 
them. 

§  22.  A  practical  method  for  obtaining  a  suflScient  knowledge  of 
the  swamp  soils  to  enable  the  owner  or  purchaser  to  form  an 
opinion  of  their  value,  and  which  may  be  performed  by  any  person 
possessed  of  patience  and  care,  is  by  adopting  a  mechanical  pro- 
cess. Take  about  a  pound  of  soil,  with  or  without  weighing,  and 
with  water  in  a  clean  dish  or  saucer,  and.  then  with  the  fingers  rub 
the  mass  fine ;  allow  it  to  settle,  pour  off  the  black  liquid  and  the 
matter  which  floats  in  it.  This  consists  of  vegetable  matter  separ- 
ated from  the  mineral.  The  operation  is  to  be  repeated  as  long  as 
the  water  is  discolored,  being  careful  nut  to  pour  off  or  waste  the 
soil.  After  several  washings  the  fine  sand}^  particles  begin  to 
appear  in  all  the  best  soils.  If,  however,  the  soil  is  poor,  white 
coarsish  sand  will  appear  in  place  of  the  gray  fine  material,  which 
characterises  the  Hyde  county  soils,  or  those  which  are  similiar  to 
them.  The  operation  is  by  no  means  difficult,  but  requires  care  to 
save  the  soil  when  it  is  fine;  indeed,  one-third  of  it  will  probably 
be  lost  in  the  most  careful  performance  of  the  process,  but  enough 
soil  will  be  obtained  to  show  its  character  even  though  the  opera- 
tion is  hastily  performed. 

Two  results,  obtained  mechanically,  will  be  given  in  this  plan. 
The  first  is  Dr.  Long's  soil,  which  had  been  under  cultivation  over 
a  centuiy,  and  the  second  a  soil  from  the  north-side  of  the  lake. 

Thus  100  grains,  on  being  carefully  washed  by  the  foregoing 
method,  gave  : 


4:6  NOETH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Very  fine  soil, 41.0 

Fine  sand  or  soil,    18.0  grs. 

Vegetable  matter, 22.00 

81.00 

The  result  shows  that  more  than  one-half  is  very  fine,  the  re- 
mainder lens  so.  The  soil,  nnde]'  the  microscope,  showed  scales  of 
inica  and  grains  of  felspar,  which  indicate  a  derivation  from  granitic 
rocks.  On  being  heated  to  redness  the  whole  becomes  a  drab 
color. 

The  soil  from  the  plantation  of  Mr.  Burrows,  on  the  north  side 
of  the  lake,  treated  in  the  same  way,  gave: 

Very  fine  soil,    28.40 

Fine, 16.20  grs. 

Vegetable  matter,   47.90 

86.30 

The  color  was  a  light  gray,  and  on  being  heated  to  redness  was 
only  slightly  redened.  There  again  the  loss  was  about  one-half,  as 
when  the  vegetable  matter  is  consumed,  it  leaves  44.30  per  cent, 
of  a  compound  which  is  mostly  silica,  which,  as  in  the  former 
specimen,  is  extremely  fine. 

§  23.  In  order  to  show  the  difi^'erence  between  a  rich  soil  and 
one  which  is  comparatively  poor,  we  shall  place  one  of  the  latter 
in  this  connexion.  It  is  from  the  Carteret  county  lands  or  the  open 
prairie.  Thus,  on  mechanically  separating  the  inorganic  matter, 
we  found : 

The  coarse  part  amounted  to,   27.00  grs. 

The  fine         "  "         " 7.58 

Organic  matter,    , 44.22 

The  fine  and  valuable  part  bears  a  small  proportion  to  the  coarse 
which  can  scarcely  be  relied  upon  for  furnishing  nutriment. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  useful  in  assisting  to  give  solidity  to  the 
mass  of  vegetable  matters. 

We  propose  to  introduce,  in  this  connexion,  the  remarks  of 
Messrs.  D.  Simmons   &  Brother,  of  Hyde  county,  accompanying 


NOETH-OAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  4^ 

two  analyses  of  soils  by  Prof.  N.  B.  "Webster,  of  Portsmouth,  Va. 
They  were  marked  A  and  B.  The  first  consists,  according  to  Prof. 
Webster,  of: 

Moisture,  when  air  dried, 14.00 

Vegetable  matter,    58.00 

Silex,  very  fine, 14.00 

Alumina,    06 

Oxide  of  iron,  . .  • 03 

Lime, 01 

Potash  and  soda,   01 

Loss, 03 

86.04 

We  liave  copied  the  analyses  from  the  Korth-Carolina  Farmer, 
and  probably  there  is  some  mistake  in  figures,  though  the  appar- 
ent error  may  lie  in  mistaking  the  quantity  used  in  analysis. 

The  composition  of  sample  B  is  stated  as  follows : 

Moisture,  when  air  dried,   13,00 

Carbonaceous  matter,   68.00 

Silex,    14.00 

Alumina,    0.06 

Oxide  of  iron,    03 

Lime, 01 

Loss, , 4.00 

100.00 

The  information  derived  from  Messrs.  Simmons,  distinguished 
for  their  successful  farming  and  large  crops,  is  as  follows :  The 
sample  A  was  taken  from  an  80  acre  field,  lying  on  the  north  shore 
of  the  lake,  and  running  back  half  a  mile.  This  land  had  been  in 
cultivation  about  20  years,  and  produces  now,  in  a  fair  crop  year, 
10  to  12  barrels  of  corn  per  acre.  The  sample  B  was  taken  from  a 
640  acre  tract,  lying  back  of  the  80  acre  field.  It  has  been  in  cul- 
tivation five  years,  and  produces,  in  a  fair  crop  year,  from  10  to  12 
barrels  of  corn  per  acre.  These  lands  lie  between  Matamuskeet 
and  Aligator  lakes,  four  miles  distant  from  Alligator  river.  Alli- 
gator lake  is  said  to  be  10  miles  wide  and  15  long,  and  from  3  to  5 
feet  deep.     It  lies  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  county.     It  is  sur- 


^8 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   STJKVEY. 


rounded  by  a  ridge  from  4  to  6  feet  above  the  sheet  of  water. 
The  back  lands  are  drained  into  Alligator  river  on  the  north,  and 
into  Palmico  sound  on  the  south.  The  cultivated  lands  on  the 
north  side  of  Matamuskeet  lake  run  back  about  two  miles,  and  are 
very  uniform  in  quality.  The  north  side  is  the  best  and  deepest 
soil.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  the  county  is  a  garden  spot.  It  has  a 
population  of  5,000  to  6,000,  and  ships  from  500  to  600  thousand 
bushels  of  corn,  and  some  50  thousand  bushels  of  wheat  per  annum, 
to  which  may  be  added  large  quantities  of  peas,  potatoes,  &c." 

§  24.  Recapitulation  respecting  the  Hyde  county  soils.  Their 
peculiarity  consists,  1st,  in  the  extreme  fineness  of  the  soil  proper, 
or  the  inorganic  matter.  This  is  of  a  drab  color,  and  shows  by 
itself  a  good  composition  ;  that  is,  it  proves  that  it  does  not  consist 
of  a  pure  marine  sand,  but  that  it  contains  all  the  common  inor- 
ganic elements,  iron,  silica,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  etc.  Those 
which  consist  of  marine  sand  alone,  and  which  express  by  them- 
selves barreness,  have  an  inorganic  matter  which  is  white,  and  any 
person  of  ordinary  capacity  will  recognise  this  element,  which, 
though  necessary,  is  not  sufficient  by  itself  to  supply  the  wants  of 
vegetation  ;  it  is  simply  defective  in  other  important  matters. 
Acids,  however,  acting  upon  even  the  white  sand,  dissolve  a 
fractional  part,  showing  the  probable  existence  of  a  small  quantity 
of  felspar  intermixed  ;  and  hence,  even,  in  the  case  of  the  presence 
of  a  white  sand,  a  few  crops  may  be  grown. 

The  great  amount  of  organic  matter  is  a  common  characteristic ; 
and  its  presence  serves  only  to  distinguish  this  class,  the  swamp  soils 
from  the  upland  soils. 

Hyde  county  soils  show  a  greater  capacity  for  endurance  than 
the  prairie  soils  of  Illinois ;  notwithstanding  the  annual  crop  of 
maize  is  somewhat  less  per  acre.  But  on  the  score  of  location  we 
are  unable  to  see  that  the  Illinois  soils  have  a  preference.  As  it 
regards  health,  Hyde  county  is  no  more  subject  to  chills  and  fever 
than  the  country  of  the  Prairies.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
persons  live  and  labor  in  swamps  with  impunity,  or  freedom  from 
disease.  A  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter,  when  exposed  to 
the  sun,  usually  generates  miasmata,  but  the  common  mode  pur- 
sued for  cultivation  of  the  soils  of  Hyde  county  will  not  expose  a 
greater  surface,  or  a  greater  amount  of  vegetable  matter  than  is 
exposed  in  the  breaking  up  of  prairie  grounds ;  and  those  grounds 


NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  'W 

when  jBrst  exposed,  or  for  several  years  disengage  miasmata  and 
generate  in  the  exposed  inhabitants  chills  and  fevers.  Precautions 
in  both  sections  of  country,  no  doubt,  will  enable  persons  and 
families  to  counteract  their  injurious  influences,  in  part  at  least,  and 
thereby  escape  the  attacks  of  fever. 

The  origin  of  the  soils  of  Hyde  county  may  be  traced  to  granitic 
rocks,  either  granite  or  gneiss,  whose  composition  is  precisely 
similar.  Finely  abraded  materials  being  transported  from  the  interi- 
or by  rivers  which  frequentlj^  overflowed  their  banks,  and  distri- 
buted thereby  the  fine  soil  over  low  grounds,  upon  which  plants 
of  various  kinds  were  growing.  In  certain  poor  tracts,  however, 
coarse  sand  was  admitted  and  distributed  more  rapidly,  but  still 
over  a  surface  supporting  coarse  grasses  and  mosses.  As  all  of  the 
eastern  counties  were  at  one  time  submerged  tracts,  and  received 
deposits  of  sand  while  beneath  the  Atlantic,  it  has  no  doubt  often 
happened  that  these  marine  sands  have  been  subsequently  disturbed 
and  the  sand  redistributed  by  rivers. 

§  25.  The  position  of  the  great  swampy  tract  to  which  Hyde 
county  belongs  is  between  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Roanoke  and 
Palmico  sound,  a  position  which  shows  very  satisfactorily  what 
must  have  taken  place  in  early  times  when  the  land  was  a  few  feet 
"lower  than  it  is  now.  We  may  regard  all  the  tracts  which  possess 
a  gray  or  drab  colored  soil  as  having  received  it  from  the  interior, 
while  the  clear  white  sands,  which  often  appear  under  the  micro- 
scope as  ground  crystals,  are  probably  derived  from  marine  beds 
which  have  been  assorted  or  sifted  by  the  action  of  waves.  It  is 
by  no  means  an  uncommon  circumstance  that  river  currents,  with 
their  burthens  of  comminuted  rock  and  tides  bearing  forward  sand 
meet  and  commingle  their  contents,  and  some  A^arieties  of  soil  are 
actually  composed  of  the  tine  and  coarse  as  if  they  had  been  mixed 
in  the  way  we  have  indicated. 

§  26.  The  principal  fact  we  have  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  soil  mixed 
with  vegetable  matter  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
plants.  The  black  peat,  if  destitute  of  soil,  will  not  sustain  a  crop, 
it  necessarily  perishes,  and  the  time  during  which  plants  or  crops 
of  the  cereals  can  grow  and  perfect  seeds  or  fruit  depends  directly 
upon  the  amount  of  soil  the  peat  contains  combining  the  necessary 
elements  in  due  proportions. 


50  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAl.   SURVEY. 

•  CHAPTER  Yin. 

Position  of  Plj'mouth.  Quality  of  soils  indicated  by  the  growth  of  timber.  Cost 
ot  drainage.  Composition  of  four  specimens  of  soil  from  the  south  side  of 
Albemarle  sound.     Mechanical  separation  of  elements,  etc. 

§  27.  Plymouth  is  a  place  of  some  note  upon  one  of  the  south  di- 
visions of  the  Roanoke,  and  above  its  entrance  into  Albemarle  sound 
some  ten  miles.     It  is  upon  the  north  side  of  the  great  swamp,  to. 
which  the  Hyde  county  lands,  which  have  been  under  consider-^ 
ation,  belong. 

In  its  vicinity  are  lands  which  are  owned  by  gentlemen  of 
Raleigh,  and  who  are  now  making  inroads  upon  the  desert  swamp 
in  the  way  of  drains  and  ditches,  aided  by  the  axe  and  grabbing 
hoe.  Their  lands,  which  are  not  far  from  Plymouth,  are  in  an 
easterly  direction,  and  appear,  so  far  as  externals  are  concerned, 
closely  related  to  those  of  Hyde  county ;  but  as  we  have  already 
stated,  the  swamp  lands  of  North-Carolina  are  as  variable  in  com- 
position as  the  uplands;  and  hence,  the  necessity  of  an  analysis  of 
some  kind  to  prove  or  determine  their  characteristics.  It  is  indeed, 
highly  probable  that  there  is  more  danger  of  misjudging  of  their 
qualities  by  simple  inspection,  than  of  the  uplands;  for  the  vegeta- 
ble matter  masks  their  essential  characteristics,  or  those  character- 
istics by  which  their  ability  to  bear  crops  depend.  It  is  true,  that 
timber  in  kind  and  quality,  furnishes  a  clue  upon  which  to  found  a 
judgjnent;  and  following  this  guide,  it  is  very  probable  that  good 
judges  would  make  a  wise  choice  of  lands;  for  it  is  so  fitting  that 
certain  trees  ot  a  large  and  portly  size  should  grow  upon  a  fat 
land,  and  dwarfish  ones,  with  stinted  limbs  and  mossy  trunks, 
should  belong  to  a  lean  soil,  in  which  there  is  a  great  scarcity  of 
the  money  elements,  that  it  seems  to  be  be  an  axiom  in  the  veg- 
etable economy.  It  is  as  much  established  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom as  in  the  animal,  that  fatness  and  size  is  due  to  full  feeding, 
while  leanness  is  due  to  a  lack  of  nutriment,  provided  the  organs 
of  assimilation  are  in  a  healthy  state.  We  look  upon  the  specimens 
from  the  north  of  the  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  swamp  as  represen- 
tative of  that  side,  as  they  were  taken  from  a  tract  of  seven  or 
eight  thousand  acres.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  before  us  the  characteristics  of  those  lands  which  we  know  to 


NORTH-CAROLINA   CffiOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  51 

be  good,  and  wliicli  have  been  amply  tested.  We  ought,  however, 
to  bear  in  mind  that  tests  by  actual  crops  may  be  sutiicient 
to  satisty  practical  men,  but  the  results  of  these  very  tesis  harmo- 
nize perfecfly  with  well  known  principles.  To  the  minds  of  those 
imbued  with  principles,  the  results  are  precisely  what  they  would 
have  predicted,  they  would  say  a  priori,  what  the  results  should  be. 
State  the  facts  truly  with  respect  to  the  soil,  and  they  would  pre- 
dict results.  We  have  then,  two  sources  of  imformation  for  our 
g\i\(\e,  pri7iGfples  and  tests  hy  experiment.  Principles  have  certain 
advantages  over  tests,  as  they  determine  for  ns  before  hand,  or 
prior  to  the  application  of  labor  and  the  payment  of  money  ;  and 
hence,  may  be  resorted  to  when  tests  by  experiments  are  not  con- 
venient and  require  more  time  than  can  be  devoted  to  the  mat- 
ter. 

§  28.  The  first  work  which  is  necessary  to  subdue  a  swamp  and 
bring  it  under  cultivation  is  to  draw  off  the  water  by  drains,  and 
then  to  kill  the  trees  b}''  girdling.  The  timber  when  girdled  is 
allowed  to  stand  until  dead. 

We  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  the  expense  of  subduing  swamp 
lands  by  draining  and  clearing.  In  this  State  it  is  generally  under- 
taken by  the  owners  of  hands.  The  highest  price  we  have  lieard  be- 
ing paid  is  16  cents  per  cubic  yard  for  cutting  deep  and  wide 
ditches.  This  is  more  than  the  work  will  cost  usually ;  especially 
when  it  is  undertaken  by  the  owner,  with  good  hands.  The  task 
for  a  smart  negro  is  to  cut  400  cubic  feet  per  day,  and  one  who  is 
industrictiis  finishes  it  in  season  to  save  at  least  one  full  day  of  the 
week.  In  draining  systematically,  lots  are  laid  out  in  squares  often 
acres  each;  ultimately  the  water  finds  its  way  to  the  drains  and  leaves 
the  surface  sufficiently  dry  for  cultivation.  It  is  not  expected  that 
the  surface  will  be  dried  the  first  season,  and  no  profits  are  obtain- 
ed the  first  two  years.  Corn,  however,  grows  upon  the  ditches 
and  upon  the  area  drained  soon  after  the  mass  has  settled  even 
among  the  dead  trees  after  the  underbrush  is  removed.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  heavy  expense  attending  the  subjugation  of  a  swamp, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  person  who  embarks  in  it,  should  possess 
capital,  for  it  is  not  simply  the  first  cost  which  is  to  to  be  met,  but 
the  expenditure  has  to  remain  unproductive  for  two  or  three  years. 
There  is  the  cost  of  supporting  the  hands  employed  for  the  time, 
the  interest  of  the  money,  and  perhaps  the  outlay  for  the  land,  all 


52  nS!8SS-*oarolina  geological  survey. 

of  which,  either  requires  cash,  or  good  credit  based  upon  a  cash 
reputation. 

The  timber  immediately  shows  the  effect  of  drainage  and  gird- 
ling, but  it  is  not  intended  to  appl}'  the  axe  generally  to  the  large 
trees.  The  roots  of  the  gum  speedily  decay.  The  tree  is  spongy 
and  almost  like  cork;  and  hence,  rots  earlier  than  the  cypress.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  work  of  clearing  is  not  so  formidable  an  under- 
taking as  it  appears  it  would  be  on  the  first  inspection  of  the  tow- 
ering cypresses,  the  woods  are  soft  and  unlike  the  oaks,  maples, 
birches,  beeches,  etc.,  of  a  northern  forest.  We  believe  that  the 
cost  of  clearing  these  lands  is  less  than  those  of  the  North,  or  the 
well  wooded  uplands  of  the  South,  but  we  have  only  insufficient 
data  to  form  a  correct  opinion.  The  difficulty  is,  very  few  persons 
keep  a  book  of  expenses  for  work  of  the  kind,  and  besides,  we  be- 
lieve that  as  clearing  really  extends  over  a  period  of  many  years, 
it  is  impossible  to  estimate  it.  Nature  is  left  to  perform  as  much 
of  it  as  possible. 

§  29.  The  section  from  which  the  soils  were  taken,  the  composi- 
tion of  which  we  propose  now  to  give,  is  situated  upon  the  branches 
of  Kendricks  creek.  This  short  creek  rises  in  the  dismal  and  falls 
into  the  south-side  of  Albemarle  sound.  The  section  is  regarded 
as  a  part  of  the  Hyde  county  tract,  and  to  be  continuous  therewith. 
We  shall  give  the  composition  of  only  four  specimens,  as  they 
seem  to  represent  the  condition  and  character  of  this  part  of  the 
swamp.  The  first  is  a  brown  or  grayish  brown  color  and  would  be 
pronounced,  on  inspection,  a  fertile  soil.  On  drying  it  concretes 
into  small  lumps,  which,  however,  are  easily  crushed.  It  shows  no 
sand  or  soil  proper,  the  vegetable  matter  being  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  mask  or  conceal  it,  but  being  rubbed  between  the 
fingers,  or  taken  between  the  teeth,  its  grittiness  is  at  once  per- 
ceived. The  latter  method  of  trying  the  swamp  soil  is  a  very 
good  one,  as  if  present  it  will  be  detected  and  something  relating 
to  its  fineness  or  coarseness  revealed.  This  is  numbered  4,  and  on 
analysis  it  gave : 

Water,    24.000 

Silex,    48.000 

Organic  matter,    18.000 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,   8.900 

*»  Lime, 220 


NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  53 

Magnesia,, 100 

Potash, 1Y7 

Soda,    060 

Chlorine, 090 

Sulphuric  acid, trace. 

99.447 

The  silex  and  inorganic  matter  is  of  an  ash  color,  and  it  is  proper 
to  observe  in  this  connexion  that  the  iron  is  in  the  condition  of  a 
protoxide,  being  white  when  precipitated,  and  resembles  alumina 
unless  it  is  oxidised  by  nitric  acid.  It  differs  from  many  soils  in 
the  color  of  the  oxide,  as  in  some  cases  it  has  the  peitoxide  color 
and  then  it  is  greenish.  The  organic  matter  in  these  cases  of  un- 
cultivated and  recently  exposed  soil  has  deoxidised  it  to  its  lowest 
state  of  oxidation,  and  this  fact  illustrates  very  condusively  the 
influence  of  inorganic  matter  in  soils.  When  they  have  become 
dry  and  exposed  to  the  atmospheric  agents  a  part  of  the  iron 
becomes  oxidised,  but  being  always  present  in  a  mass  of  vegetable 
matter  it  is  again  deoxidised  under  favorable  conditions.  A  suc- 
cession of  changes  of  this  kind  take  place  which  as  water  is 
decomposed  hydrogen  is  set  free,  and  may,  when  hberated,  combine 
with  nitrogen  and  form  ammonia. 

This  variety  of  soil  is  rather  upon  the  rim  of  the  swamp,  but  it 
occupies  an  exceeding  large  space.  The  analysis  was  made  upon 
the  specimen  which  had  not  been  dried  in  the  open  air,  and  shows 
the  amount  of  water  which  it  naturally  holds.  But  this  large  per 
centage  of  water,  it  will  be  perceived,  diminishes  the  ratio  of  the 
other  important  elements  ;  and  hence  thctrue  value  of  this  variety 
of  soil  is  not  expressed  in  its  most  favorable  light. 

The  examination  of  this  area  of  soil  suggests  its  adaptation  to 
cotton.  We  have  seen  cotton  growing  luxuriantly  and  well  sup- 
plied with  bolls  on  a  similar  soil  in  Carteret  county.  In  the  con- 
stitution of  cotton  we  can  see  no  objection  to  a  complete  success 
on  this  soil. 

About  one-fourth  of  a  mile  from  the  outer  rim  we  find  the  mass 
to  be  richer  in  vegetable  matter  or  to  increase  in  quantity  towards 
its  interior.  The  specimen  is  black,  fine  grained  material,  but  con- 
tains unchanged  stems  of  vegetables,  or  those  but  slightly  blacken- 
ed.   It  is  a  true  peat,  in  most  respects  to  the  eye.     We  took  of  this 


^4:  NOETH-CABOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVET. 

sample  numbered  2,  two  hundred  grains  and  found  it  composed 
of: 

PERCENTAGE. 

"Water,   100.000  50.000 

Silex 39.000  19.500 

Organic  matter,    54.100  29.050 

Alumina,     4.52  2.26 

Peroxide  of  iron,    1.09  .54                », 

Lime, 781  .391 

Magnesia, 160  .040 

Potash, 177  .088 

Soda,    088  .044 

Chlorine,    090  .045 

Sulphuric  acid,    trace.  trace. 

199.335  99.978 

The  texure  of  this  specimen  is  looser  than  the  foregoing.  In  dry- 
ing, it  concretes  and  forms  rounded  lumps  which  is  a  favorable  in- 
dication of  its  condition,  ior  one  composed  entirely  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter dries  differently. 

The  great  excess  of  water  in  this  variety  bears  unfavorably  upon 
its  composition  provided  it  is  not  left  out  of  the  account,  but  it  is  plain 
when  drainage  shall  have  had  its  full  effect  upon  it,  the  ratio  of  all 
the  important  elements  will  be  greatly  increased.  Taken  all  in  all, 
this  soil  is  rich  in  productive  elements,  and  will  be  found  equal  to 
any  of  those  in  Hyde  county ;  for  as  we  have  found  by  ample  ob- 
servation, the  only  draw  back  to  a  successful  cultivation  is  the  ab- 
sence of  soil,  or  inorganic  matter.  The  necessity,  however,  of  com- 
pactness, to  give  roots  a  firm  hold  of  the  earth  is  important.  Cer- 
tain kinds  of  swamp  lands  remain  loose  and  rather  chaffy  after  they 
are  drained.  It  is  indicative  of  the  absence  of  soil  proper,  and 
when  they  are  exposed  to  sparks  of  ignited  matter  they  catch  fire 
like  tinder,  and  burn  until  extinguished  by  the  exhaustion  of  com- 
bustible matter  or  are  put  out  by  long  continued  rains. 

§  30.  For  mechanical  analysis  of  the  foregoing,  100  grains  wer« 
taken  and  carefully  washed : 

We  obtained  sand, 3.00 

Very  fine  soil  or  sand, 16.25 

Organic  matter, 27.05 

46.30 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   STJEYET.  55 

There  is,  therefore;  a  great  predominance  of  yery  fine  inorganic 
matter  in  the  foregoing,  which  is  rather  remarkable  ;  it  however, 
goes  to  sustain  the  opinion  which  has  been  formed  of  it ;  tlie  finely 
divided  matter  being  in  suflicient  abundance  to  last  for  centuries. 

The  first  soil  of  which  we  gave  the  composition  gives,  as  well  be 
seen,  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  coarser  particles  of  soil.  Thus 
we  obtained  of: 

Coarser  particles,   15.00 

Very  fine,   41.00 

Organic  matter,   18.00 

Y4.00 

The  coarser  particles  consisted  of  limpid  quartz,  mixed  with  fel- 
spathic  looking  particles,  the  former  greatly  predominating.  Al- 
though the  extremely  fine  particles  are  in  part  quartz,  yet  it  is 
highly  probable  that  as  felspar  is  softer  and  suffers  more  from  abra- 
sion that  they  are  mostly  felspathic,  and  hence,  will  furnish  in  the 
dourse  of  time,  inorganic  elements  as  food  for  crops.  The  fine 
silica  in  its  condition  of  fineness  is  also  in  a  state  to  be  acted  upon 
by  alkalies,  and  thereby  become  soluble  and  fitted  to  be  taken  into 
the  organism  of  plants. 

The  condition  of  a  large  part  of  the  inorganic  elements  is  to  be 
regarded  in  the  light  of  a  reason  why  these  soils  are  so  productive 
in  maize. 

Another  specimen  of  swamp  soil  from  this  district,  and  from  a 
spot  still  farther  removed  from  the  outer  rim  than  the  preceding, 
gave  results  somewhat  different.  It  is  numbered  one,  and  yielded 
the  following  elements  on  being  submitted  to  analysis : 

Water, 75.60 

Organic  matter, 16.00 

Silex, 7.60 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina, 30 

Lime, 40 

Magnesia,    10 

Chlorine,  none. 

Sulphuric  acid, ,^. ..... .  none. 

100.00 


56  NOETH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  small  per  centage  of  inorganic  elements  in  this  specimen  is 
due  to  the  great  excess  of  water.  If  calculated  dry,  they  would 
amount  to  about  35  per  cent.,  and  each  individual  element  would 
be  increased  in  proportion.  But  soils  of  this  composition,  es- 
pecially when  connected  with  water  beneath,  never  become  ac- 
tually dry,  but  will  contain  at  least  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  water. 
This  tract,  with  the  composition  then  as  thus  indicated,  will  contain 
inorganic  matter  amply  sufficient  for  cultivation.  The  process  of 
draining  in  this  instance  had  jnst  begun  to  take  effect,  and  hence, 
the  amount  of  water  which  these  lands  hold  in  their  natural  con- 
dition is  exhibited. 

By  mechanical  separation  of  the  parts  of  this  soil,  it  gave : 

Coarsish  soil,  mostly  quartz,  1.70 

Fine  soil,   7.30 

Were  the  fine  soil  stated  in  the  ratio  it  will  exist  after  it  is  per- 
fectly drained  and  dried  in  the  sun,  the  amount  will  be  so  changed 
in  the  relative  quantities,  that  no  one  wnll  doubt  that  it  can  sustain 
a  large  growth  of  corn,  or  other  crops  suitable  to  this  class  of  soils. 

The  last  of  this  series  is  No.  3.  It  consists  of  earthy  matter  in 
a  fine  state  of  division,  but  in  which  we  found  a  particle  of  quartz 
as  large  as  a  duck  shot,  which  is  uncommon  in  soils  of  this  descrip- 
tion. It  contains  also  partially  decomposed  sticks  or  wood.  It 
gave,  on  analysis,  as  taken  from  the  tract,  with  only  a  slight  effect 
from  draining : 

Water,  68.80 

Organic  matter,    24.91 

Alumina  and  peroxide  of  iron, 56 

Silex, 4.50 

Carbonate  of  lime, .20 

Magnesia, 10 

Chlorine, 07 

Sulphuric  acid, trace. 

After  exposure  to  the  air  for  a  month  it  lost  water,  and  hence 
the  proportion  of  the  elements  were  relatively  changed.  The  soil 
as  first  submitted  to  analysis  shows  the  large  amount  of  water  it  is 
capable  of  holding  for  some  time  after  the  drains  have  been  cut. 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  m^ 

The  following  analysis  shows  the  amount  of  water  lost,  which 
certainl}'-  escapes  slowly  as  it  has  been  exposed  freely  to  the  air  in 
a  dry  room  for  four  weeks : 

Water,  50.80 

Insoluble  organic  matter,    ; 22.00 

Soluble  organic  matter,    10.80 

Inorganic,    16.10 

Phos.  lime  and  magnesia  dissolved  by  carb.  of  am- 
monia,     ' 1.20 

Tried  mechanically  for  inorganic  matter,  it  gave : 

In  coarsish  sand  or  soil,    ,     8.50 

Very  fine  soil,    Y.50 

The  constitution  of  this  whole  tract,  so  far  as  the  soils  collected 
can  be  relied  upon,  prove  that  it  is  closely  allied  to  the  Hyde 
county  or  Matamuskeet  lands.  There  is  really  no  deficiency  of 
inorganic  matter,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  cultivation  for  half 
a  century  will  improve  it.  One  objection  to  soils  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  the  loose  state  of  the  surface  from  the  presence  of  unde- 
composed  wood,  and  hence  an  insecure  condition  of  maize  in  a 
storm  of  wind  and  rain.  It  is  highly  probable  that  it  will  be  im- 
proved by  a  heavy  roller,  or  by  any  measure  which  will  give 
solidity  to  the  surface. 


CHAPTEK  IX, 


The  Pungo  tract.  Gen.  Blount's  plantation;  General  description  of  this  part  o/ 
the  Albemarle  swamp,  with  its  natural  growth  of  timber.  Bepth  and  compo- 
sition of  the  soils  of  this  section  of  the  swamp.  Mechanical  separation  of  th» 
parts  of  the  soil.  How  the  poor  soils  of  this  class  may  be  improved.  Tyrrell 
county.     The  centre  of  the  Albemarle  tract  highest  in  the  centre. 

§  31.  Pungo  lake,  a  small  sheet  of  water,  is  nearly  tt^  centre  ©f 
4 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 


the  great  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  swamp.  From  near  this  little 
sheet  of  water  numerous  sluggish  streams  depart ;  some  to  Albe- 
marle sound,  others  to  Pamlico,  and  others  still,  which  flowing  at 
lirst  more  easterly,  di-ain  the  centre  off  towards  Hyde  county, 
where  finally  they  take  a  northerly  direction,  and  flow  into  Albe- 
marle sound,  by  Alligator  river.  Pnngo  lake  appears  to  be  the 
culminating  point  of  this  great  tract,  where  the  swell  of  the  crown 
attains  its  maximum,  and  hence,  it  is  here  that  we  should  expect 
to  find  the  most  vegetable  matter  with  the  least  soil. 

On  the  Beaufort  county  side,  or  perhaps  \ve  should  say  Wash- 
ington, which  is  its  capitol,  we  have  the  north-west  rim  or  margin. 
The  travelled  part  of  this  country  is  along  the  north  side  of  the 
Pamlico  sound,  where  the  land  has  the  firmness  necessary  for  a 
road ;  but  a  little  north  lies  the  drowned  lands,  which  on  being 
traced  eastwardly,  carry  us  back  to  Hyde  county. 

Many  plantations  have  been  reclaimed  from  the  Beaufort  side, 
while  the  attempts  to  work  successfuly  the  lands  about  Pungo, 
have  not  been  eminently  so. 

The  most  successful  planter  of  Beaufort  county,  and  probably  of 
the  State,  is  General  Blount.  He  is  the  successful  pioneer  in  sub- 
jugating the  swamps,  and  probably  saw  at  an  early  day  their  great 
aod  intrinsic  value,  and  has  made  a  large  fortune  by  their  cultiva- 
tion, and  is  now  the  owner  of  50,000  acres.  It  is  true,  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  Matamuskeet  lands  was  indicative  of  the  nature 
of  other  swamps,  but  still  it  seems  to  have  been  held  that  they 
were  very  peculiar  and  confined,  and  that  planters  need  not  expect 
equal  advantages  out  of  this  region,  and  it  has  taken  time  to  satisfy 
the  public  that  rich  lands  of  this  class  exist  elsewhere.  What  has 
contributed  very  considerably  to  depreciate  their  value  have  been 
the  failures  to  cultivate  the  poorest  tracts,  and  the  management  of 
experiments  to  determine  something  satisfactory  to  owners  has 
often  been  trusted  to  incompetetent  parties. 

§  32.  The  specimens  which  have  been  submitted  to  analysis  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  character  oi*  the  dismal  upon  its 
southern  margin,  or  northwestern  margin,  if  we  depart  from  Ply- 
mouth, were  procured  from  Gen.  Blount's  plantation.  The  exami- 
nation of  so  large  a  field  rendered  it  necessary  to  select  samples 
from  known  places.  It  is  not,  however,  possible  to  carry  such  in- 
vestigations over  the  w^ola  ground*      A  lite  time  would  'scaroejy 


NORTH-CABOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

suffice  for  this.  Neither  do  we  deem  it  necessary ;  for,  though 
there  are  several  kinds  of  soil  which  possess  marked  differences  in 
their  composition,  yet,  there  would  be  unnecessary  repetitions  of 
facts;  for  it  seems  to  us  there  are  only  a  few  points  which  require 
to  be  fully  established,  though  they  should  be  placed  before  those 
who  are  any  ways  interested,  in  such  a  ligh,t,  that  these  points  may 
be  determined  by  themselves. 

§  33.  Gen.  Blount's  plantation  is  at  Madisouville,  12  miles  from 
Washington,  and  is  located  upon  the  margin  of  the  swamp.  The 
general  run  of  the  timber  is  black  gum,  of  which  there  is  a  heavy 
growth  in  many  places,  large  poplars  and  maples,  which  are  usual- 
ly scattering,  and  short  leaved  pines  ;  and  when  the  land  falls  off 
in  fertility,  there  is  a  growth  of  laurels. 

The  depth  of  the  vegetable  covering,  rarely  exceeds  thirty  inch- 
es. Its  general  appearance  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  all  lands  of 
this  class,  being  black,  wet  and  spongy,  while  in  their  natural  con- 
dition. Thej  are  based  upon  a  subsoil  which  is  argillaceous,  but 
not  so  close  and  compact  as  to  retain  the  water. 

The  crops  have  not  been  confined  to  corn.  Oats,  though  not 
eminently  productive,  have  succeeded  very  well ;  the  poorest  fields 
yielding  from  30  to  40  bushels  per  acre.  In  seasons  less  favorable 
for  this  grain,  it  falls  to  20  bushels  per  acre.  The  corn  crop  has 
averaged  forty-five  bushels  to  the  acre.  Gen.  Blount  states  in  a 
letter  published  in  the  report  for  1858,  that  he  had  raised  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  on  a  plantation  in 
Hyde  county.  This  result  is  one  which  is  not  surprising,  and  it 
shows  the  lands  of  this  class  are  fully  equal  in  productiveness  to 
the  prairie  lands  of  Illinois,  of  which  we  have- given  some  account 
in  a  preceding  paragraph. 

Another  fact  mentioned  by  Gen.  Blount  is  of  great  importance, 
is  that  for  the  forty  years,  during  which  he  has  been  a  resident  up- 
on this  class  of  lands,  the  health  of  his  family,  white  and  black,  will 
compare  favorably  with  the  healthiest  locations  in  Eastern  North- 
Carolina. 

Only  four  specimens  from  Gen.  Blount's  plantation  have  been 
analyzed. 

ISfo.  1.  Is  a  dark  soil,  and  has  a  depth  of  twenty  inches,  resting 
upon  a  suUsoil  with  argillaceous  matter,  but  not  sufficient  in  quanti- 
ty-to  form  an  imprerviotis  mass.    It  is  ihtermixed  with  sand.    The 


Qfk  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVHY. 

'•W  ftlNri*;*-, 

land  bore  a  heavy  growth  of  black  gum,  with  poplars,  maples  and 
a  few  laurels,  and  in  which  there  was  a  mixture  of  the  short  leaved 
pine.  It  bore  50  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  and  had  been  under 
cultivation  three  years.     It  gave  on  analysis : 

Silex,    65.540 

Hunic  acid  or  soluble  organic  matter,    2.30 

Insoluble  organic  matter,    23.70 

Water,    6.050 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    4.920 

Carbonate  of  lime,    0.490 

Magnesia,    0.050 

Potash,   0.003 

Soda,    0.020 

Phosphoric  acid,    0.003 

Sulphuric  acid, trace. 

Chlorine,   trace. 

It  has  a  fine  drab  colored  inorganic  matter,  with  a  due  propor- 
tion of  oxide  of  iron  and  alumina.  The  proportion  of  the  alkalies 
and  phosphoric  acid  appear  to  be  small ;  and  yet,  the  growth  of 
timber  indicates  a  high  grade  of  fertility. 

A  mechanical  separation  of  the  essential  parts  of  this  specimen 
of  soil  gave : 

Very  fine  soil,  or  sand,   50.00 

Coarser  soil  or  sand,    '.....  20.60 

Organic  matter, 26.00 

It  had  been  exposed  to  the  air  several  weeks,  and  had  become 
dry,  but  soils  of  this  description  still  retain  from  six  to  eight  per 
cent,  of  water.  Mixed  with  the  organic  matter  we  found  small 
pieces  of  decayed  wood,  bark,  roots,  &c.  The  earthy  part  was 
invisible,  an  important  fact,  for  we  may  always  regard  sucli  speci- 
mens as  containing  it  in  a  very  fine  state  of  division,  and  favorable 
for  crops. 

No.  2  was  taken  from  an  unreclaimed  part  of  the  marsh.  The 
depth  of  soil  is  two  feet.  Subsoil  contains  sufficient  clay  to  check 
materially  the  percolation  of  water,  and  resists  the  introduction  of 
the  spade.  The  consequence  of  this  impervious  state  is,  that  the 
surface  has  always  been  wet,  and  more  so  than  in  No.  1.    The 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

vegetable  growth  consists  of  reeds,  which  stand  very  thick.  The 
pines  are  small  and  sickly,  and  intermixed  with  the  former  are 
gall  berries  and  red  and  white  bay  bushes.  The  soil  is  supposed 
to  have  been  burnt  over  in  former  times,  as  large  stumps  of  charred 
pine  still  remain.  After  heavy  rains  the  surface  is  nearly  covered 
with  water.  It  is,  however,  susceptible  of  drainage.  On  submit- 
ting this  soil  to  analysis  it  gave  : 

Silex, 74.600 

Organic  matter,    18.000 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina, 3.000 

Phosphoric  acid,    0.021 

Carbonate  of  lime,   0.049 

Magnesia, 0.005 

Potash, 0.040 

Soda 0.030 

Water,    4.000 

00.000 

This  specimen  was  nearly  dry  before  it  was  weighed.  It  pre- 
served its  water  a  long  time,  and  after  several  months  exposure  to 
the  air,  in  an  open  box,  it  contained  15  per  cent,  of  water.  It 
contained  rather  fresh  and  half  charred  roots,  with  bark  and  wood, 
but  its  texture  was  compact,  not  spong3\ 

The  separation  of  its  parts  mechanicallj^  gave  : 

Very  fine  sand, 55.545 

Fine  sand,   15.000 

Organic  matter,    18.000 

No.  3  has  been  cleared  for  ten  years,  and  has  been  regarded  as 
second  rate  swamp  land.  The  growth  of  laurels  is  greater,  and 
fewer  poplars  and  gums  than  No.  1.  For  ten  years  in  succession 
it  has  been  cultivated  in  corn,  and  produced,  in  its  prime  state, 
forty  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  last  crop  was  only  thirty.  A  crop 
of  oats  followed,  with  a  yield  of  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre.  The 
soil  will  average  18  inches  in  depth.  The  specimen  for  analysis 
was  taken  from  a  part  of  the  Held  which  is  regarded  as  the  poorest, 
or  from  that  part  of  the  field  which  produced  the  poorest  oats.  It 
gave: 


^  NOKTH-CAKOLINA  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Silex,    81.600 

Vegetable  matter, 12.800 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    4.100 

Carbonate  of  lime,    0.020 

Magnesia,    0.010 

Phosphoric  acid,    trace. 

Potash,    trace. 

98.530 

The  color  of  this  soil  is  of  a  dark  gray,  and  had  become  dry  in 
the  box  beside  No.  2,  which  remained  wet.  It  is  light  and  pulver- 
ulent, though  it  forms  loose  concretions  in  drying. 

The  quantity  of  silex  is  quite  large  for  this  class  of  soils,  and 
some  of  the  most  important  elements  of  growth  exist  in  small 
proportions.  There  is  quite  a  contrast  between  this  specimen  and 
No.  1,  or  between  it  and  the  best  Hyde  county  soils. 

The  foregoing  sample  of  soil  is  one  which  would  be  greatly  im- 
j  roved  by  the  use  of  marl.  It  has  a  large  stock  of  organic  matter, 
and  hence  large  dressings,  if  thought  advisable,  could  be  used 
without  injury.  The  labor  and  expense  of  enriching  soils  of  this 
description  is  much  less  than  when  they  are  nearly  destitute  of 
soil  or  inorganic  matter,  and  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  all  the  peaty 
soils  which  begin  to  be  delicient  in  the  inorganic  elements  may  be 
brought  up  to  the  best  class  of  soils  by  the  use  of  marl  alone,  for 
in  the  use  of  this  fertilizer  more  than  one  good  result  is  secured. 
In  the  first  place  the  necessary  elements,  lime,  magnesia,  iron  and 
phosphoric  acid  are  added  to  it,  and  in  the  second  place  marl  con- 
solidates the  mass,  an  improvement  which  most  swamp  lands  require. 

No.  4  has  a  depth  of  3  feet  and  rests  on  a  sandy  clay,  and  allows 
the  percolation  of  water.  The  timber  is  very  large,  black  gums 
from  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter  at  the  stump,  and  fifty  to  sixty  to 
the  limbs,  with  straight  bodies;  the  limbs  form  an  angle  of  about 
30°  to  the  axis  of  the  trunk.  Poplars  with  large  trunks  are  not 
uncommon,  mixed  with  maples  in  keeping  with  the  former  as  to 
size  and  thriftiness,  and  cypresses,  averaging  from  8  to  10  to  the  acre 
and  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter  at  the 
stump  ;  the  bodies  are  straight,  and  the  limbs  form  an  angle  with 
the  trunk  of  40°,  and  first  appear  at  the  hight  of  one  hundred  feet. 
This  tract  is  uncultivated.     Its  soil  is  composed  of: 


NORTH-CAKOLINA    GEOLOGICAL   STJKVET.  W 

Silex,    77.56 

Or^anio  matter,    15.400 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    6.900 

Lime,   500 

Magnesia, 100 

Potash,    019 

Soda 029 

Phosphoric  acid, 062 

Sulphuric  acid, 180 

Chlorine,  trace. 

101.028 
The  mechanical  separation  of  its  parts  gave  : 

Very  fine  sand,    60.00 

Fine  soil,    25.50 

Organic  matter, 15.40 

The  sand  is  not  coarse,  but  rather  fine,  and  (quartzose)  of  a  gray 
color.     Tt  is  very  uniform  in  size  in  all  the  specimens. 

This  tract  probably  contains  tlie  best  land  of  the  section.  It  is 
black  in  color  and  contains  partially  decayed  roots,  bark  and  wood. 

The  timber,  depth  of  soil  and  its  composition,  indicate  a  soil 
probably  equal  in  fertility  to  any  in  the  eastern  counties.  The 
silicious  matter  is  fine,  and  of  a  drab  color.  Portions  of  this  soil, 
after  drying  in  the  air,  were  exposed  to  the  heat  of  an  oven  having 
a  temperature  of  300°,  and  lost  34  per  cent,  of  water. 

It  appears  to  be  established  from  many  observations  and  experi- 
ments relative  to  the  swamp  lands,  that  much  depends  upon  the 
iineness  of  the  soil  intermixed  with  the  vegetable  matter ;  for 
when  there  is  a  perceptible  coarseness  of  all  the  particles,  the  land 
will  not  bear  cultivation  many  years.  It  will  be  deficient  in 
elements  which  ai-e  always  large  enough  in  uplands,  as  the  oxides 
of  iron  and  alumina.  The  soil  too,  will  be  found  to  cons'st  of 
quartz  or  flint,  similar  to  that  of  beach  sand.  This  variety  dries 
readily,  and  is  liable  to  become  chaffy,  or  if  the  vegetable  matter 
is  fine,  the  quartz  soon  sliows  through  the  white  ground  in  which 
it  is  imbedded  ;  where,  on  the  contrary,  the  earthy  matter  is  fine, 
it  retains  moisture  and  bears  the  drouths  of  summer  without  suf- 
fering.    In  certain  combinations  of  soil  elements,  extreme  fineness 


64  NORTH-CAROLINA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

may  be  a  defect;  it  may  be  too  impervious  to  the  air,  and  so  light 
as  to  be  blown  away  with  high  winds.  Sncli  cases  belong  to  that 
class  of  soils  where  the  vegetable  matter  is  comparatively  small. 
But  in  swamp  soils  extreme  fineness,  instead  of  being  an  objection, 
is  an  advantage, 

§  84,  The  high  esteem  in  which  swamp  lands  begin  to  be  held 
should  not  blind  the  eyes  of  their  admirers  to  the  fact,  that  like 
other  lands,  they  will  show  the  effects  of  bad  treatment  after  a 
while;  and  it  may,  indeed,  does  turn  out,  that  they  become  at  least 
partially  exhausted  after  several  years  of  cultivation.  When  it  is 
found  that  the  quantity  of  Indian  corn  per  acre  is  steadily  falling 
off,  while  the  seasons  are  favorable,  it  is  a  warning  to  the  planter 
that  he  is  taxing  his  land  too  much,  and  it  requires  rest,  or  some 
mcdification  of  treatment. 

Experience  proves  that  guano  acts  admirably  upon  these  lands 
when  they  are  becoming  exhausted,  and  no  doubt  the  vegetable 
matter  still  remaining  has  much  to  do  with  the  beneficial  effects  of 
this  fertilizer. 

Marl  also  acts  very  favorably,  and  it  is  one  of  those  kind  adjust- 
ments which  brings  these  lands  and  marl  in  juxtaposition. 

The  favorable  action  of  guano  must  in  part  depend  upon  the 
ready  absorption  of  its  ammonia  by  the  vegetable  matter,  a  fact 
■which  is  well  established.  There  is,  therefore,  less  loss  or  less 
liability  of  losing  this  important  element  when  used  upon  these 
lands,  than  upon  uplands,  where  the  vegetable  matter  is  generally 
small,  rarely  exceeding  five  or  six  per  cent,,  and  often  reduced  to 
two  or  three. 

We  see,  (m  comparing  swamp  lands  with  sandy  ones  in  this  re- 
spect, especially  those  of  the  kind  which  often  occur  in  the  eastern 
counties  that,  in  the  latter,  the  use  of  guano  is  rather  precarious,  much 
dependii^g  upon  seasonable  rains  or  showers.  On  swamp  lands, 
again,  neither  guano  nor  marl  are  liable  to  burn  the  crop. 

When,  therefore,  lands  which  have  a  constitution  similar  to  those 
of  Beaufort,  Washington  and  others,  it  seems  to  be  conceded  that 
they  are  less  liable  to  suffer  from  the  irregularities  of  our  climate 
than  the  best  class  of  uplands. 

§  35.  That  part  of  the  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  swamp  which 
extends  into  Tyrrell  county,  appears  to  rank  onlj'-  as  second  rate 
soil;  but  it. is  only  upon  the  Croatan  sound  that  we  have  made 


NOETH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  D®?' 

examinations,  and  hence  we  may  have  formed  an  erroneous  opinion 
of  a  part  of  this  great  tract.  We  know  that  tliere  are  lands  of  this 
class  which  are  cnhivated  successfully  and  witli  profit,  but  how 
they  rank,  when  compared  with  Hyde,  Washington  and  Beaufort 
counties,  our  data  are  insufficient  for  forming  a  satisfactory  opinion. 
§  36.  The  centre  of  this  great  tract  is  higher  tiian  the  margins, 
and  we  believe  this  plienomenon  to  be  due  to  a  growth  of  vegetable 
matter,  and  it  will  probably  turn  out  that  at  the  surface  there  will 
be  a  deficiency  of  soil,  or  a  great  excess  of  tb.e  vegetable  element. 
If  this  conjecture  is  true  it  will  be  liable  to  take  fire  from  the 
carelessness  of  hunters,  and  even  to  occur  when  the  common  pre- 
cautions have  been  taken  to  prevent  it.  Much,  however,  is  to  be 
expected  from  a  better  drainage  than  has  yet  been  obtained. 
When  this  has  been  obtained  there  will  be  a  great  change  in  the 
upper  part  or  surface,  the  loose  vegetable  matter  will  shrink  to 
half  of  its  present  bulk,  and  if  in  the  early  times  of  the  formation 
soil  accummulated  with  the  vegetable  growth  the  surface  may 
undergo  so  great  a  change  by  depression  that  the  roots  of  crops 
may  be  brought  within  striking  distance  of  the  soil  below. 


CHAPTER  X. 


Bay  river  District,  composition  of  its  soil.  The  4th  District  of  swamp  lands.  The 
open  prairie  of  Carteret  County,  composition  of  its  soils,  change  effected  bj 
drainage.     Inorganic  matter  increases  with  the  depth  of  soil. 

§  37.  Bay  river  district  of  swamp  lands  is  included  between  the 
I6wer  reaches  of  Pamlico  and  Neuse  rivers,  or  between  their  forks 
as  they  unite  to  form  Pamlico  sound.  Bay  river  is  intermediate 
between  these  two  rivers. 

This  district  is  much  smaller  than  the  preceding  or  the  Albe- 
marle. It  has  the  same  general  characteristics;  a  flat  country, 
with  swamps  interrupted  by  hard  ground,  which  generally  extends 
along,  and  not  far  from  the  estuaries  of  the  Pamlico  and  ISTense. 


PP  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  only  specimen  of  the  Bay  river  lands,  which  we  have  pre- 
served for  analysis,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  other 
districts.  It  is  separated  mechanically  into  the  three  distinct  parts, 
and  furnishes  proportions,  or  ratios,  quite  similar  to  the  best  swamp 
lands;  thus: 

One  hundred  grains  gave,  of  coarsish  sand,    23.0   parts. 

Very  fine  sand,    17.0       " 

Organic  matter,    55.0       " 

Water,    5.0       " 

§  38.  The  partly  chemical  and  partly  mechanical  analysis,  gives 
a  result  corresponding  to  those  of  the  other  districts  which  are 
known  to  hold  a  high  rank. 

The  principal  point  which  requires  to  be  brought  out  and  prov- 
ed is,  the  proportion  of  soil  existing  in  the  mass  of  the  peaty  mat- 
ter, inasmuch  as  when  this  is  proved,  it  has  been  found  to  possess 
the  same  complexity  of  composition  as  any  soil  from  the  midland 
counties;  that  is,  it  is  found  to  contain  iron,  alumina,  lime,  magne- 
sia, potash,  etc.,  though  like  much  of  the  soil  of  the  eastern  coun- 
ties, the  relative  proportion  of  silex  may  be  greater.  It  seems  from 
this  fact,  and  the  character  of  the  deposites  in  all  the  eastern  coun- 
ties, that  formerly,  the  state  of  the  river  currents  and  other  agents, 
performed  the  same  functions  that  they  now  do-,  and  much  in  the 
same  manner;  they  transported  the  abraded  materials  from  the 
upper  country,  assorted  them,  and  disposed  of  them  as  the  same 
rivers,  currents,  agents,  &c.,  now  do  upon  our  coast. 

§  39.  The  4:th  district  of  swamp  lands,  lying  between  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  !N^euse  and  Core  sound,  is  elongated  westwardly  and 
comparatively  narrow  for  its  length.  It  furnishes  the  same  varie- 
ties of  soil  as  the  preceding,  passing  from  those  which  rank  as  num- 
ber one,  to  number  three,  or  those  which  are  too  poor  to  hold  out 
inducements  to  clear  them,  in  the  present  relative  value  of  landed 
property.  Indeed  this  country  furnishes  such  a  vast  acreage  of 
tillable  land  that  even  second  rate  lands  will  remain  uncultivated 
except  when  their  locations  for  market  are  extremely  favorable. 
We  ought  to  take  their  adaptations  into  consideration  ;  for  certain 
lands  which  rank  only  as  second  or  third  rate  for  corn,  or  wheat, 
may  pay  very  large  profits  if  planted  with  Irish  potatoes.     Certain 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   (GEOLOGICAL   SUKYET.  W 

tracts  of  poor  lands  answer  well  for  pasturflge,  sheep  husbandry, 
etc.  It  is  rare  indeed,  that  we  can  justly  say  of  this  or  that  piece 
of  land,  that  it  is  good  for  nothing.  These  remarks  are  applicable 
to  the  tract  which  we  propose  now  to  consider.  We  shall  confine 
our  remarks  to  that  part  of  this  district  which  is  included  in  Carte- 
ret county.  We  have  not  attempted  to  give  exact  boundaries  of 
swamp  lands.  It  would  be  impossible  in  the  present  condition  of 
the  State  surveys.  When  large  districts  are  marked  upon  any  ot 
the  best  maps,  it  would  be  adopting  an  error  to  regard  their  boun- 
daries as  correctly  drawn.  The  swamps  are  connected  by  strips  of 
narrow  belts,  and  swell  out  irregularly,  and  hence,  may  be  consid- 
ered as  forming  one  tract,  but  their  shape  or  form  is  extremely 
irregular,  and  most  plantations  have  their  swampj'^  parts,  though 
thej'  are  principally  upland. 

§  40.  It  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  however,  whether 
a  tract  of  this  class  is  large  or  small ;  the  general  characterics  will 
be  those  of  the  large  areas  ;  their  composition  will  agree,  and  their 
qualities  will  belong  to  one  standard,  or,  they  will  rank  in  the  same 
grade  according  to  the  amount  of  inorganic  matter  which  they  con- 
tain. 

§  41.  The  great  tract  in  Carteret,  generally  known  as  the  open 
prairie,  is  a  marsh  or  swamp,  mostly  destitute  of  trees;  and  hence, 
the  area  which  is  exposed  to  view  is  more  than  ten  miles  in  length 
and  breadth.  But  the  entire  tract,  has  an  area  more  than  two  hun- 
dred square  miles.  In  this  tract,  there  is  a  continuity  of  swamp, 
ranging  somewhat  in  condition,  depth  of  mud,  and  solidity  of  sur- 
face, but  it  is  all  swamp  in  reality.  It  furnishes  a  growth  of  coarse 
grasses  over  its  whole  surface,  or  that  part  which  is  open  to  the 
sun.  This  tract  is  surrounded  by  a  piney  ridge  which  has  a  sandy 
soil  and  bears  moderately  large,  long  leaved  pines.  But  the  im- 
mediate border  is  so  thickly  overgrown  with  briers,  reeds,  bam- 
boos, and  other  ugly  bushes,  that  it  is  at  the  expense  of  a  man's 
coat,  pantaloons  and  shir'r,  if  he  forces  his  way  through  them.  This 
outside  hedge  is  twenty  rods  wide  in  many  places,  and  even  wider 
in  others.  Since  improvements,  however,  on  a  small  scale  have 
been  undertaken  by  means  of  ditching,  the  access  to  the  open 
grounds  is  easy  and  safe. 

This  tract  should  be  described  under  two  divisions,  the  outside 
briery  border,  and   the   grassy  open  part.      The  first  is  much  the 


im  NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

least  in  area,  but  it  is  #f  considerable  importance,  asit  is  land  which 
has  a  high  intrinsic  worth. 

"We  visited  this  tract  in  1852,  in  April,  by  the  direction  of  the 
Board  of  Education.  The  time  proved  very  unfavorble  for  con- 
ducting the  examination.  The'  prairie  was  filled  with  water  and 
the  facilities  for  getting  over  it.  were  only  clumps  of  grassy  knowles 
which  stood  above  the  water.  It  w^as  soft  and  yielding  to  the  foot 
every  where  else,  and  was  easily  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  between 
five  to  ten  feet. 

During  this  visit,  we  procured  specimens  of  the  surface  from  a 
depth  of  eighteen  inches,  When  brought  up,  they  were  spongy 
and  black,  and  consisted  mostly  of  vegetable  fibre,  undergoing  the 
common  changes  incident  to  swamp  grounds.  But  the  examina- 
tion was  not  satisfactory,  and  could  not  be  from  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  was  made.  The  question,  however,  for  decision 
was,  whether  the  composition  of  the  soil  of  the  swamp  held  out  en- 
couragements for  expenditure  for  draining  it,  or  if  drained,  could 
it  be  cultivated  with  profit  ?  The  surveys  of  this  great  tract  prove 
that  it  may  be  laid  dry  ;  it  is  from  12  to  15  feet  above  storm  tide. 

The  drainage  is  into  Core  sound  and  Neuse  river,  and  is  higher 
in  the  middle  than  its  borders.  The  largest  or  heaviest  drainage 
is  into  the  Neuse.  The  position  of  the  open  ground  prairie  with 
respect  to  water  access  and  removal  of  products  is  very  favorable, 
and  if  this  tract  was  under  cultivation,  all  parts  of  it  would  find 
convenient  points  for  reaching  the  deep  waters  of  this  river. 

The  soil  of  the  rim  of  the  open  prairie  is  richly  constituted.  On 
submitting  a  sample  to  analysis  it  gave  : 

Water, 11.200 

Organic  matter,    52.700 

Silex,    32.500 

Per  oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    2.000 

Carbonate  of  lime, 1.000 

Magnesia,    300 

Potash,    073 

Soda,    

Chlorine,    trace. 

Sulp.  acid,  trace. 

100.063 


HORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUEVEY.  69 

§  42.  This  part  of  the  tract  furnishes  a  black  vegetable  mass 
from  three  to  live  feet  deep;  it  is  homogeneous  and  contains  com- 
paratively few  fibres  in  an  undecomposed  state.  Bj  experiment 
it  produced  excellent  Irish  potatoes,  and  a  growth  of  corn  stalks 
and  leaves,  which,  in  consequence  of  late  planting  and  inattention, 
bore  no  ears.  The  seed  was  planted  the  20th  of  June,  and  the 
weeds  were  allowed  to  have  their  way,  but  the  result  proved  that 
the  crop  did  not  fail  in  consequence  of  the  unfavorable  constitution 
of  the  soil.  When  corn  is  planted  in  peat  destitute  of  soil  it  grows 
to  the  hight  of  a  foot  and  then  dies.  The  stalks,  however,  were 
well  developed  and  well  supplied  with  leaves,  and  grew  to  the 
hight  of  10  feet.  Hence,  it  is  probable  that  had  the  corn  been 
planted  in  season  and  properly  hoed  it  would  have  borne  fruit. 
However,  there  never  has  been  much  doubt  respecting  the  border 
soil,  its  rank  vegetation  furnishes  testimony  quite  conclusive. 

Mechanical  separation  gave : 

Coarsish  soil,    7.00 

Fine  soil, 25.50 

Organic  matter,    52.70 

It,  therefore,  contains  a  large  per  centage  of  very  fine  soil,  and 
which  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  crops. 

§  43.  The  piney  ridge  which  forms  a  border  still  higher  than  the 
prairie  has  a  soil  more  sandy  than  the  preceding,  and  is  regarded 
a  second  rate  land  of  this  class.     It  gave,  on  analysis  : 

Water, 2.58 

Organic  matter,    8.58 

Silex,  mostly  sand, 78.20 

Per  oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    3.82 

Carb.  of  lime,   3.80 

Magnesia,   50 

99.58 

Separated  mechanically  it  gave : 

Coarsish  sand,   17.20 

Fine  soil, 16,00 


lH  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL    SUKYEY. 

§  44.  The  foregoing  famishes  nothing  important  any  farther  than 
the  fact  that  tlie  immediate  surroundings  of  the  prairie  the  soil 
differs  in  no  respect  from  the  common  soils  of  this  region  of  coun- 
try. A  change,  however,  is  immediately  recognised  on  passing 
within  the  piney  ridge,  especially  that  of  the  open  gi-ounds. 

Since  an  important  drainage  has  been  effected  by  a  ditch  about 
four  feet  deep,  and  extending  one  mile  from  the  outer  rim,  the 
ground  has  settled  about  18  inches  over  an  area  of  about  half  a 
square  mile.  It  was  near  the  drained  part  that  our  soils  were  taken 
in  1852.  Upon  this  part,  or  the  drained  part,  three  small  patches 
of  corn  were  planted  last  year.  The  two  outer  pieces  were  upon 
the  part  from  which  our  first  specimen  of  soil  was  taken,  and  in 
the  same  piece  with  the  corn,  beans,  and  Irish  potatoes  were  grown 
which  ripened  well.  The  piece  of  corn  upon  the  open  prairie  and 
about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  outer  rim  was  not  equal  in 
size  and  vigor  to  that  nearer  the  outside ;  still,  considering  all  the 
circumstances,  the  experiment  ought  to  be  regarded  as  successful, 
though  we  do  not  believe  this  tract  adapted  to  the  growth  of  corn. 

From  this  patch,  and  from  the  bottom  of  the  most  vigorous  corn 
hill,  we  took  a  specimen  of  soil  for  examination.  It  had  the  follow- 
ing composition  : 

Water, 21.38 

Organic  matter,    60. 62 

Inorganic  matter, 2. 60 

It  can  hardly  be  maintained  that  so  small  a  quantity  of  inorganic 
matter  would  have  sufficed  for  the  existence  of  corn -of  the  size  we 
found  it  in  September,  and  the  only  solution  which  can  be  given 
of  the  fact  is  that  the  roots  penetrated  to  the  subsoil  which  con- 
tains a  much  larger  per  centage  of  inorganic  matter. 

This  view  is  sustained  by  the  character  of  the  soil  which  appears 
in  the  middle  of  the  ditch  not  more  than  10  feet  from  the  place 
where  the  com  grew,  and  about  12  to  14  inches  deeper  than  the 
specimen  just  referred  to. 

Thus  the  soil  of  the  middle  of  the  ditch,  under  the  vegetable 
coating,  gave  on  analysis  : 


NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  71 

Water 12.08 

Organic  matter,    i 46.22 

Silex,     34.58 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    2. 60 

Carb.  of  lime,    2.60 

91.66 

The  meclianical  separation  of  parts  gave : 

Coarse  sand,    27.00 

Fine  soil,    11.58 

Organic  matter,   46.22 

82.80 

§  4:5.  Not  far  removed  tlieu  from  the  surface  soil  there  fs  a  de- 
posit consisting  of  organic  and  inorganic  matter  in  due  pro- 
portions, and  within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  corn  and  other 
plants.  The  soil  being  light  presents  no  obstacle  to  their  penetra- 
tion below,  and  indeed  are  invited  there  by  a  greater  amount  of 
moisture  since  the  drainage  began.  The  sand  in  the  middle  part 
of  the  ditch  and  elsewhere  probably,  is  distributed  irregularly. 
We  find  it  as  it  were  in  nests,  but  there  is  still  in  the  vegetable  part 
a  fine  soil  to  the  amount  we  have  stated.  We  were  unable  to  pro- 
cure soil  in  1852  from  this  depth,  though  in  sounding  we  always 
found  what  appeared  to  be  a  sandy  deposit.  Since  the  surface  has 
settled  by  drainage,  the  upper  part  has  as  it  were  diminished  gi-eat- 
ly  in  thickness  and  seemingly  in  quantity,  but  it  is  really  only  in 
bulk.  It  has  become  compact.  The  coarse  sand  is  of  a  granitic 
origin,  as,  it  contains  felspar  and  mica,  a  fact  which  holds  out  an 
improved  prospect  of  its  fertihty  being  lasting. 

We  would  not  advise  an  attempt  of  raising  corn  upon  the  prairie 
grounds.  We  believe  the  Irish  potatoe  will  prove  the  most  profi- 
table crop,  especially  so  long  as  they  find  a  ready  sale  at  the  price 
of  from  $1.50  lo  $2.00  per  bushel.  Irish  potatoes  can  be  raised  at 
a  cost  of  only  ten  cents  per  bushel,  at  which  price  they  become 
profitable  for  the  manufacture  of  starch.  But  so  long  as  they  bear 
so  high  a  price,  starch  making,  though  a  simple  process,  would  be 
out  of  the  question.  The  quality  of  the  potatoe  grown  upon  the 
prairie  is  really  superior  to  the  northern  groMiih,  or  to  such  varie- 


72  '        NOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVEY. 

ties  as  find  tlieir  way  to  this  State,  being  mealy  and  entirely  free 
from  a  strong  taste  or  odor.  Tiiey  would  also  be  employed  if  cheap- 
er for  fattening  swine,  as  they  make  a  superior  meat  when  the  fat- 
tening is  completed  by  the  use  of  corn  meal. 

The  composition  of  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  differs  es- 
sentially from  the  foregoing.     It  contains  : 

Water, 4.80 

Organic  matter,    6.60 

Silex, 79.82 

Alumina, 2.92 

Peroxide  of  iron,    1,30 

Carbonate  of  lime,   3.00 

Magnesia, 40 

Potash, 03 

■   '  98.87 

§  46.  A  result  similar  to  that  which  is  brought  out  strongly  in 
this  analysis  seems  to  be  one,  which  is  general,  or  common  to  all 
soils  of  this  class.  It  is  the  steady  increase  of  soil  in  quantity,  pro- 
portionate to  the  depth.  At  the  top,  it  is  at  its  minimum  ;  in  the 
stratum  from  one  foot  to  twenty  inches  below,  it  has  sensibly  in- 
creased ;  and  near  the  bottom,  it  is  in  quantity  equal  in  amount  to 
the  upland  soils,  though  more  silicious.  There  the  top  of  the  soil 
has  only  between  2  and  3  per  cent,  of  soil ;  it  is  really  the  ash 
of  the  vegetable  matter.  Eighteen  inches  deeper,  and  we  find  34 
per  cent.,  and  at  the  depth  of  4  feet^  it  has  increased  to  79  per  cent. 
Considering  the  character  of  the  soil,  we  regard  these  facts  as 
important,  for  there  is  really  no  obstacle  to  the  penetration  of  roots 
to  this  depth  when  the  body  of  soil  is  drained.  We  often  find 
roots  penetrating  still  deeper,  and  in  a  stiffer  medium  by  far  than 
this.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  stagnant  water  should  be  re- 
moved, and  that  no  layers  of  earth  and  vegetable  matter  contain- 
ing astringent  salts  be  left  undrained ;  and  if  existing  should  be 
neutralized  by  the  use  of  lime  or  marl.  We  may  also  observe  that 
the  organic  matter  continues  to  the  depth  of  four  feet,  but  it  di- 
minishes about  in  the  same  ratio  that  the  inorganic  increases,  but 
its  presence  is  important,  as  it  keeps  the  mass  porous,  and  if  air 
penetrates  thus  far  it  is  acted  upon  and  furnishes  the  usual  products 
for  the  growth  of  a  crop.     . 


NORTH-CAKOLINA  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  73 

But  in  the  middle  of  the  large  swamps,  the  vegetable  covering 
is  much  thicker  than  upon  the  borders,  and  hence  may  be,  and  no 
doubt  is,  too  thic'c  to  permit  the  roots  to  reach  a  bottom,  or  layer 
charged  with  soil.  How  much  deep  draining  will  effect  in  consoli- 
dating the  surface  after  a  sufficient  lapse  of  time  for  drying  and 
increasing  its  solidity,  has  not  yet  been  determined  by  trial.  We 
have  found  in  some  samples  100  per  cent,  of  water  remaining  af- 
ter the  soil  had  been  exposed  two  weeks  to  the  air.  While  vege- 
table matter  is  thus  soaked,  or  permeated  with  water,  its  bulk  is 
greatly  swollen  ;  and  hence,  when  removed  by  thorough  draining, 
and  it  will  also  shrink  excessively  and  probably  not  occupy  more 
than  one  third  of  its  former  bulk;  its  diminution  of  bulk,  will  no 
doubt  in  many  cases  render  the  soil  accessible  to  the  roots  of 
plants. 

In  the  Albemarle  district  and  adjoining  the  tract,  and  indeed 
forming  a  part  of  it,  there  is  an  open  prairie  quite  similar  to  the 
Carteret  in  general  appearance.  It  lies  towards  Pungo  lake,  or  a 
little  to  south-east  of  the  creek.  It  is  called  the  burnt  lands  from 
the  common  opinion  of  the  inhabitants,  that  it  has  been  burnt  over, 
when  its  timber  was  destroyed.  It  is  regarded  also  as  having  been 
prior  to  this  period  a  juniper  swamp.  At  present  its  vegetable 
productions  are  limited  to  a  few  scattering  bushes  which  do  not  in- 
terfere with  a  wide  view  over  the  whole  field  for  many  miles  in  all 
■directions.  To  the  eye  the  surface  soil  scarcely  differs  from  that  of 
adjoining  productive  tracts.  But  the  prevalent  opinion  is  that  it 
will  prove  a  barren  field  after  a  few  inferior  crops  are  harvested. 

We  have  only  separated  the  parts  of  the  soil  taken  from  near  the 
surface.  It  is  black  and  slightly  gritty  between  the  teeth,  and 
evidently  consists  of  vegetable  matter  to  a  great  extent. 

On  being  mechanically  divided,  it  gave  : 

Coarsish  quartzose  sand, 1,70 

Fine,  or  very  fine  soil,   4.10 

Vegetable  matter, 27.2 

Water, 67.0 

99.030 

Tliis  separation  gives  a  small  per  centage  only  of  soil,  but  as  the 
tspecimen  was  fresh  from  th^  field,  and  contaioed  a  large  propor< 
5 


74  NOSTH-OAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

tion  of  water.  The  67  per  cent,  which,  it  holds  before  draining, 
will  afterwards  be  diminished  about  two-thirds ;  and  hence,  the 
quantity  of  fine  soil  will  be  relatively  increased.  We  should  also, 
take  into  the  account  the  increase  of  soil  in  depth,  and  within  strik- 
ing distance  of  the  roots  of  crops,  which  will  come  in  aid  of  the 
planter.  Without  spending  time  in  a  conjecture  whether  the  burnt 
district  can  be  profitably  cultivated,  as  it  is,  it  will  aid  us  in  making 
up  a  judgment  before  hand  to  compared  it  with  another  on  its 
growth  of  timber  in  its  vicinity,  and  whose  soil  is  externally  iden- 
tical in  character.  It  is  a  tract  situated  near  or  upon  McRae's  ca- 
nal. This  tract  is  remarkably  heavily  timbered.  The  trees  consist 
of  black  and.  white  gum,  cypress,  the  long  and  short  leaved  pine 
here  and  there,  and  all  are  large.  Among  them  is  the  red  maple,, 
which  is  regarded  as  a  sure  indication  of  a  productive  soil,  when  as^ 
sociated  with  the  foregoing. 

The  composition  of  this  soil,  as  determined  mechanically  is  as. 
follows  r 

Coarsish  quartzose  sand,     ,. ^ .......  S.ffO' 

Fine  soil, 5.0O 

Water, 70.80 

Organic  matter, 20.70 

100.00. 

It  appears  that  a  soil  of  the  foregoing  composition,  with  only  8,50 
per  cent,  of  inorganic  matter  bears  large  forest  trees  and  those- 
which  all  regard  as  indicative  of  a  productive  soil ;  and  indeed, 
which  has  proved  to  be  such  when  brought  into  cultivation.  The 
differences  then  between  the  two  soils,  the  burnt  lands,  and  the 
canal  tract,  are  only  slight ;  and  it  appears  to  us,  that  an  attempt 
to  cultivate  the  former  is  warranted  by  all  the  facts  which  have 
come  to  our  knowledge.  The  differences  do  not  seem  to  be  so 
wide,  at  any  rate,  that  one  shauld  be  set  down  as  barren  and  worth- 
less, while  the  other,,  is  regarded  by  all  as  an  exceedingly  valuable 
tract. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  open  prairie  of  Carteret,  though 
not  so  forcibly,  yet  w^e  have  sufficient  indication  that  it  will  be  pro- 
ductive of  a  number  of  crops  when  it  is  properly  drained  and  at- 
tended to. 


NORTH-CAKOLINA  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  T5 


CHAPTER  XL 

Composition  of  soils  towards  Beaufort.  Composition  of  Mr.  Sefton's  swainp 
land.  Adams  creek  soils,  Craven  county.  Dover  swamp  Craven  county. 
Its  hight  above  Newbern,     Composition  of  its  soil. 

§  47.  The  open  prairie  is  at  present  a  wilderness,  but  towards 
Beaufort  raanj^  plantations  are  located  upon  the  main  road  leading 
to  these  lands,  and  which  include  portions  of  it  which  are  regarded 
as  highly  valuable.  Several  tracts,  from  four  to  six  miles  from 
Beaufort,  liave  been  examined. 

Of  these,  Mr.  Sefton's  furnishes  probably  as  fair  a  representation 
of  the  character  of  this  part  of  the  Carteret  swamp,  as  any.  The 
timber  is  all  large  and  thrifty,  consisting  of  cypress  and  black  and 
white  gum,  mainly,  with  water  oak  and  the  long  and  short  leaved 
pines.  The  part  from  which  the  sample  of  soil  was  taken  has  been 
in  tillage  two  years,  and  had  at  the  time  a  crop  of  com  unhar- 
vested,  which  from  estimation  by  the  owner,  would  give  fifty 
bushels  to  the  acre.  It  is  black,  but  shows  sand  within  one  foot  of 
the  surface.  The  specimen  taken  was  from  a  depth  of  eight  inches, 
and  from  the  corn  field  alluded  to.    It  gave,  on  analysis : 

Water  and  organic  matter^ 20.000' 

Silex, Y.8>300 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina, 4.400 

Carbonate  of  lime,  ., . .     1.700 

Magnesia, . .IVO 

Potash,.    .       .086 

99.656 

The  sample  had  become  dry  "by  exposure  to  the  air  for  tEree 
months.  It  contained  a  trace  of  ammonia  in  1,000  grains.  Upon 
a  part  of  this  tract  whieh  had  been  in  cultivation  for  several  years, 
fine  looking  cotton  was  growing.  It  was  late  planted,  but  the  trial 
was  regarded  as  highly  successful,  and  it  will  probably  turn  out 
that  the  best  soil  for  cotton  are  those  of  the  half  worn  ones  which 
originally  were  rich  in  vegetable  matter.  On  such  lands  there 
would  be  a  great  saving  in  fertilizers.  Mechanical  separation  of. 
its  parts,  gave ; 


76  NORTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVICT. 

Coarsish  sand,    43.2 

Fine  soil,  30.0 

The  coarsish  sand  is  all  quartz,  and  it  is  visible  in  the  dry  speci- 
men, and  is  easily  detected  in  the  wet,  by  its  gritty  feel.  Still, 
there  is  a  stock  of  fine  matter  sufficient  for  all  the  wants  of  vege- 
tables. The  vegetable  matter,  as  usual,  increases  in  depth  towards 
the  central  part  of  the  swamp,  and  the  growth  of  cypress  and 
black  gums  is  also  greater  in  this  direction  than  upon  the  margin. 

§  48.  Immediately  opjtosite  to  the  section  of  land  which  has  been 
drained,  and  the  soils  of  which  have  been  under  consideration,  ie 
Adams  creek,  in  Craven  county.  The  principal  branches  of  Adams 
creek  rise  in  the  crowning  part  of  the  open  prairie,  and  if  pro- 
longed would  interlock  with  the  branches  which  form  the  North 
river  on  the  Beaufort  side.  We  have  the  soils  at  this  time  from 
the  banks  of  Adams  creek,  and  have  made  several  analyses  of 
them  to  that  extent  which  will  serve  as  a  basis  on  which  we  may 
found  a  judgment  of  their  merits. 

We  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  make  a  minute  analysis  as  in 
other  soils,  and  it  seemed  sufficient  to  do  enough  to  enable  us  to 
make  a  comparison  of  their  qualities  with  those  of  the  North  river 
a8,"v^e.l-i  as  those  from  other  swamp  lands.  The  first  is  evidently  a 
mixture  of  organic  matter  with  fine  and  coarse  sand  and  other 
elements  brought  out  by  analysis.     It  gave : 

,  Organic  matter, 29.00 

Silex, 54.80 

Alamipa,  and  iron,    , 4-40 

Carbonate,of  lime,  0.35 

Magnesia, : 0.13 

Water,  ... . '.-. 11.00 

99.68 

A  mechanical  sep^r^tjipa^^ve: 

Rather  qo^rsish  sand, 43.00 

!    Fine  soil  or  saind, 28.40 

1    Organic  matter, 29.00 

TliisBoil  ha^,  become  drj  ib^  exposure  to  the  air,  and  much  less 


NOBTH-CAEOLESrA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  T7 

water  was  obtained  than  is  usual  from  swamp  soils,  and  where 
there  is  as  much  inorganic  matter  as  in  this  specimen,  the  drying 
bj  common  exposure  is  more  complete  and  rapid  than  where  it 
has  less.  The  sand  is  white  quartz.  It  appears  that  the  sand  of 
the  open  prairie  of  Beaufort  is  coarser  than  that  of  the  Albemarle 
district,  but  it  is  intermixed  with  a  quantity,  16  per  cent,  of  fine 
material. 

Another  soil  from  Adams  Creek  differs  from  the  foregoing,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  larger  quantity  of  sand  and  less  vegetable 
matter.  It  is  gray  and  gritty,  and  harsh  to  the  feel,  and  was  taken 
from  beneath  the  covering  of  organic  matter.  On  submitting  it 
to  analysis,  it  gave : 

Water, 6.30 

Organic  matter,    8.00 

Silex,   *. 82.58 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,  2.82 

Carbonate  of  lime, 50 

Magnesia,    13 

100.08 

We  have  been  able  to  obtain  a  small  amount  of  potash  in  all 
the  soils  we  have  examined,  from  the  swamp  lands.  It  is  dimin- 
ished to  a  small  fraction  wherever  the  sandy  element  is  so  large. 
A  mechanical  separation  of  its  parts  gave : 

Coarse  sand,    ■. 56.2 

Fine  soil  or  sand,   29.0 

Organic  matter,    8.0 

93.2 

In  another  specimen,  the  organic  matter  was  only  3.22,  water  6, 
silex  88.78,  alumina  and  peroxide  of  iron  2.60. 

The  Adams  creek  district  seems  not  to  want  inorganic  matter  at 
all ;  they  have,  indeed,  rather  an  excess,  and  ^oo  little  vegetable 
matter.  To  account  for  this  fact,  it  seems  that  the  Craven  side  of 
the  great  marsh  must  have  been  nearer  to  the  source  from  whence 
the  sandy  matter  was  derived,  and  though  none  of  it  is  what  would 
not  ordinarily  be  regarded  as  coarse  sand,  yet  it  is  coarser  than 


78  NORTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

that  of  l^orth  river.  There  may  have  been  a  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  ISTeuse  in  former  times,  and  by  means  of  that  com- 
munication the  sandy  matter  was  supphed.  The  coarse  is  always 
nearer  the  source  from  where  it  came.  The  fine  is  transported 
farther  and  is  deposited  slowly ;  facts  which  may  be  witnessed  in 
all  heavy  showers  where  currents  are  formed  with  suflScient  force 
to  move  the  loose  materials  upon  the  surface. 

§  49.  The  Dover  swamp,  lying  north  of  Newborn,  in  Craven 
county,  is  about  fifteen  miles  long.  It  is  about  60  feet  above 
Newbei'n,  and  30  or  35  above  Kinston. 

So  far  as  its  character  is  shown  by  the  roads  which  pass  through 
it,  it  is  a  poor  tract. 

A  single  representative  only  of  its  soil  will  be  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing analysis.  The  soil  is  black,  and  to  the  eye  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  ranking  high  in  the  scale  of  merit,  but  where  the  black 
vegetable  mold  is  cut,  and  has  been  exposed  to  washing  by  rains, 
they  have  brought  out  mechanically  its  characteristics.  The  veg- 
etable matter  is  mixed  with  a  white  marine  sand,  which  is  exposed 
upon  the  face  of  ihe  cut;  an  exhibition  of  this  kind  is  never  wit- 
nessed in  soils  suitable  for  cultivation.  An  analysis  of  a  soil  rep- 
resenting the  Dover  class,  gave : 

Water,  2.71 

Organic  matter, 25.22 

Sand,    T0.50 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,   0.76 

Carbonate  of  lime,   . ." 0.01 

Magnesia, trace. 

99.20 

The  specimen  had  become  dry  by  exposure  to  the  air  in  paper, 
and  hence,  the  small  quantity  of  water.  The  sand  is  white,  and 
nearly  pure  quartz,  and  only  a  small  per  centage  could  be  dissolved 
out  by  the  action  of  muriatic  acid.  When  this  specimen  is  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  Albemarle  swamp,  which  seemed  to  lack 
inorganic  matter,  a  great  difference  is  easily  discovered  in  the 
Dover  swamp  representative;  the  water  was  reduced  to  the  lowest 
standard;  it  was  much  drier  than  it  ever  will  be  by  draining.  In 
the  Dover  representative  there  are  really  only  two  elements,  white 


NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   STJRVEY.  79 

sand  and  vegetaole  matter.  If  water  is  added,  the  sum  of  the 
three  amounts  to  98.43,  leaving  only  1.57  for  the  active  or  soluble 
elements,  and  still  the  Dover  swamp  is  covered  with  vegetation, 
though  it  is  not  vigorous  and  healthy.  It  is  no  doubt,  supported  in 
a  great  measure,  by  the  subsoil  and  the  elements  derived  from  the 
atmosphere. 

If  a  farmer,  however,  should  drain  and  put  it  requisition  for  corn 
■or  wheat,  it  would  not  answer  to  the  call.  It  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood that  we  speak  thus  confidently  of  the  whole  tract,  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  rich  places  exist.  The  most  we  wish  to  incul- 
•cate  is  that  where  the  soil  consists  of  vegetable  matter  intermixed 
with  white  or  gray  quartz  sand,  there  is  but  a  small  ground  for  hope 
that  the  tract  will  pay  the  expense  of  drainage.  The  foregoing 
views  as  intimated  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  receive  support 
from  the  consideration  that  .76  per  cent,  of  per  oxide  of  iron  and 
alumina  cannot  furnish  for  a  lapse  of  years  sufiicient  phosphoric  acid 
to  sustain  the  cereals,  it  is  at  least  evident,  that  the  available  mat- 
ter for  divers  crops  is  extremely  small.  The  practical  per  centage 
of  important  elements,  cannot  exert  a  chemical  or  mechanical  in- 
fluence upon  the  organic  matter. 

We  confess,  however,  that  we  do  not  know  the  nature  of  the 
subsoil,  it  will  probably  turn  out  that  the  forest  trees  derive  their 
support  from  the  stiff  subsoil  on  which  the  silicious  vegetable  mat- 
ter rests.  There  are  many  points  m  which  the  swamp  soils  differ 
from  the  true  peat  of  the  ITorthern  States  and  Canada.  A  very 
reliable  analysis  of  a  kind  of  peat  found  in  Canada  by  Mr.  Hunt 
of  the  Canada  Geological  survey  may  be  cited.  Thus,  Mr.  Hunt 
found  6.75  per  cent;0of  ash,  and  it  should  be  observed  that  it  is  not 
soil,  as  in.  most  eases  of  the  swamp  peat  of  the  South  but  a  true  a,sh 
of  the  vegetable  matter,  and  hence,  its  composition  must  partake 
of  that  of  an  ordinary  ash  ;  and  hence,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  large 
per  cents.,  viz  :  of  carb.  of  lime  52.41 ;  sulphate  of  lime  15  ;  sulphate 
of  potash  0.60  ;  lime  and  magnesia  as  silicates,  &c.,  to  the  amount 
of  13  per  cent.  The  peaty  soils  of  the  South,  or  certainly  of  ISTorth- 
Carolina  consist  of  intermixtures  of  fine  inorganic  matter  to  a  large 
extent,  and  though  the  top  is  essentially  vegetable  matter,  yet  the 
soil  increases  continually,  or  if  th^  areas  as  indicated  before  had 
communications  with  rivers  from  which  they  received  sediments, 
whereas,  in  the  ISTorth  the  peat  is  formed  in  isolated  basin-shaped 


§P  NOKTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

excavations,  which  have  been  filled  up  by  t|»e  growth  of  moss,  or 
sphagnum,  etc.,  and  were  of  course  separated  from  rivers  or  streams 
bearing  sediments  from  a  distance. 

§  50.  The  Onslow  and  Jones  swamp,  which  appear  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  great  Carteret  open-ground  prairie  and  swamp, 
has  an  area  of  over  one  hundred  square  miles.  The  White  Oak 
river  rises  in  it,  together  with  New  river,  both  of  which  empty 
into  Bogue  sound,  or  Bogue  and  Stumpy  sounds.  Short  branches 
rising  in  this  tract,  fall  into  the  Trent.  The  slope  is  mainly 
towards  Bogue  sound.  This  great  tract  is  easily  drained,  being 
formed  upon  comparatively  high  ground.  Portions  of  it  have 
been  under  cultivation,  and  the  produce  in  corn  has  been  from  ten 
to  twelve  barrels  per  acre.  Upon  the  branches  of  the  White  Oak 
the  timber  is  large,  consisting  of  poplar,  cypress,  black  and  white 
gum  and  red  maple.  Other  parts  are  covered  with  reeds  which 
furnish  subsistence  to  stock  during  the  winter.  The  surface  of  the 
swamp  is  more  or  less  interrupted  by  dry  islands,  which  bear  large 
long  and  short  leaved  pines.  White  oaks  abound  of  a  large  size, 
where  it  is  not  too  wet.  Some  of  the  islands,  as  they  are  called, 
have  a  light  sandy  soil,  and  seem  to  have  been  formed  by  the 
action  of  M'ater.  The  only  canal  for  drainage  which  we  have  in- 
spected, was  cut  by  Mr.  Franck,  of  Onslow  county.  It  crossed  a 
part  of  the  tract  called  the  White  Oak  desert.  This,  on  being  cut 
one  mile,  gave  a  water  power  of  about  twelve  feet.  Its  cost  was 
fifteen  cents  to  the  cubic  yard.  The  depth  of  soil  varies  from  one 
to  twelve  feet,  the  depth  increasing  towards  the  central  part  of  ihe 
tract. 

The  general  characteristics  of  this  swamp  are  the  same  as  those 
which  have  already  received  attention.  Tire  composition,  as  de- 
termined by  analysis,  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

Silex, 60.00 

Organic  matter,    25.00 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    11.050 

Phosphoric  acid, 0.312 

Carbonate  of  lime,   1.500 

Magnesia, 0.300 

Potash,    0.010 

Soda,    : 0.020 

Silicic  acid,   0.100 


NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  81 

Water, 2.Y13 

100.983 

The  machanical  separation  of  parts  gave: 

Coarsish  felspathic  sand,    27.00 

Drab-colored  fine  soil,  or  sand,    45.00 

Vegetable  matter, 25.00 

The  soil  was  dry  by  exposure  in  paper,  and  to  the  air. 

The  felspathic  sand  is  coai'ser  than  that  of  any  part  of  the  Al- 
bemarle district.  The  quantity  of  tine  soil,  and  of  lime  also,  is 
large,  and  the  elements  of  fertility  appear  to  be  suflBcient  to  con- 
stitute a  good  composition  for  cultivation. 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


Swamp  lands  of  New  Hanover  and  Brunswick  counties,  their  composition  with 
remarks. 

§  51.  The  fifth  swamp  district  is  in  ISTew  Hanover  county.  It  is 
formed  by  the  Holy  Shelter  swamp  and  Angola  bay.  They  both 
'are  elongated  tracts,  and  drai^i  into  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Cape 
Fear. 

We  find  the  composition  of  the  soils  of  the  swamp  lands  of  New 
Hanover  county  to  correspond  with  those  already  given.  Thus  a 
specimen  gave,  on  analysis  : 

Organic  matter, 7.700 

Silex 86.000 

Per  oxide  of  iron, 1.000 

Alumina 4.000 

Silicic  acid,    300 

Chlorine, trace. 

Sulphuric  acid, trace. 


82  NOKTH-CAROLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

Potash, 077 

Carb.  of  lime, 320 

Magnesia, 105 

99.502 
Mechanically  separated  it  gave,  m  parts : 

Felspathic  sand,    32.0 

Finely  divided  soil,   49.0 

Organic  matter,    7.7 

The  specimen  was  well  dried  before  analysis,  and  was  black,  but 
consisted  of  vegetable  matter  in  small  quantity  only,  and  in  which 
the  soil  was  distinguishable.  Still  it  has  been  proven  produc- 
tive. 

§  52.  A  fact  which  will  perhaps  strike  the  attention  of  a  chemist 
is  the  small  quantity  of  iron  which  exists  in  all  the  swamp  soils. 
It  is  not  only,  as  we  have  before  stated,  in  the  condition  of  a  pro- 
toxide, but  it  is  in  a  less  proportion  than  in  upland  soils.  How 
much  influence  this  quantity  of  iron  may  have  upon  vegetation,  to 
diminish  the  chances  of  a  healthy  growth,  cannot  be  determined 
before  hand.  Iron  is  no  doubt  an  important  element  in  soils,  though 
we  believe,  upon  the  whole,  that  even  in  the  swamp  soils  it  will 
be  amply  sufficient  to  meet  the  wants  of  crops. 

So  long  as  these  tracts  are  undrained,  charged  with  water,  the 
iron  will  remain  in  the  condition  of  a  protoxide.  When  drained, 
and  air  replaces  the  water,  it  is  at  least  partially  changed,  and  be- 
comes more  highly  oxidated  and  is, constantly  undergoing  changes 
by  which  the  amount  of  oxygen  is  variable,  especially  when  in 
contact  with  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter. 

§  53.  The  sixth  swamp  district  is  confined  to  Brunswick  county. 
It  is  round  or  nearly  so,  and  presents  a  very  uniform  outline,  but 
its  interior  is  studded  with  islands,  and  the  swampy  part  incloses 
them  entirely  or  they  are  connected  to  others  by  narrow  necks  of 
hard  ground.  This  swamp  lies  low  and  its  perfect  drainage  is  ques- 
tionable. We  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  an  examination  of  sur- 
vej^s  which  were  made  years  ago.  It  furnishes  a  vast  amount  of 
cypress  for  shingles.     The  timber  is  well  set,  large  and  thrifty,  and 


NOKTH-CAKOLINA   (JEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  83 

the  indications  for  fertility  are  the  same  as  those  which  have  been 
already  stated. 

The  composition  of  the  soil  supports  the  views  jnst  expressed. 
A  sample  on  analysis  gave  : 

Organic  matter, 37.50 

Water,   15.80 

Silex,  35.35 

Peroxide  of  iron,  and  alumina 10.50 

Carb.  of  lime,    1.45 

Magnesia, 0.15 

Potash,    1.10 

Soda,     0.15 

Sulphuric  acid,    trace. 

Chlorine, trace. 

100.00 

A  mechanical  separation  of  its  parts  gave  : 

Coarse  sand,   2.10 

Fine  soil, 33.25 

Organic  matter, 37.50 

It  should  be  stated  that  this  soil  contained  a  greater  quantity  of 
half  decayed  wood  sticks  than  usual,  and  hence,  the  proportion  of 
soil  is  comparatively  less  than  it  would  have  been  by  rejecting  this 
kind  of  vegetable  matter. 

§  54:.  Large  tracts  of  this  swamp  are  laid  under  water  by  dams 
which  overflows  the  high  way  or  roads  and  the  traveler  is  forced  to 
drive  his  team  through  water  from  a  foot  to  4:  or  5  feet  deep.  The 
tide  of  the  Cape  Fear  sets  up  the  creeks  some  twelve  miles  from 
their  mouths,  which  is  indicative  of  aflat  country  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  their  origin. 

The  subsoil  is  often  too  stift'for  easy  cultivation,  or  the  penetra- 
tion of  roots.  It  approaches  in  composition  and  consistence  a  brick 
clay.  Thus  the  silex  amounts  to  83  per  cent,  with  21  per  cent,  of 
organic  matter,  and  with  only  traces  of  lime,  magnesia  and  pot- 
ash.    It  is  probably  as  in  other  cases  variable  in  composition. 

Another  specimen  of  the  Brunswick  and  swamp  soil  furnished 
by  Mr.  H.  J.  McNeil,  gave  : 


^4  TsoKiM-GJm6%mM'<mdiltiMtfJ^^^^YEY. 

Water, , -. 8.000 

Organic  matter,  34.000 

Silica,    45.470 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina, 10.490 

Garb,  of  lime, 0.490 

Magnesia,    , 0.490 

Potash, 0.581 

Soda, 0.326 

Sulphuric  acid, trace. 

Chlorine, trace. 

Silicic  acid, 0.580 

99.99Y 

The  composition  of  this  sample  indicates  as  high  degree  of  fertili- 
ty as  the  Hyde,  Washington  or  Beaufort  counties. 

While  analj^sis  furnishes  very  satisfactory  results,  it  is  nol  to  be 
forgotten  that  the  tracts  adjacent  may  be  less  so,  and  indeed,  not 
productive  at  all.  Where  changes  in  the  kind  of  timber  are  ap- 
parent, passing  from  the  cypress,  gums,  populars  and  maples,  etc., 
to  bays,  gall-berry,  especially  if  accompanied  by  a  dwarfed  condi- 
tion, it  is  an  indication  that  the  soil  has  changed,  or  the  con- 
ditions have  passed  from  a  favorable,  to  a  less  favorable  one,  and 
though  the  change  may  possibly  be  due  to  influences  which  deep 
draining  may  remove,  yet,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  it  is  due  to  the 
constitution  of  the  soil.  This  should  be  examined,  and  tested  in 
they  way  we  have  proposed. 

§  55.  In  a  few  wet  districts  we  sometimes  meet  a  peculiar  soil, 
which  is,  as  the  people  say,  salt;  but  which  really  never  contains 
but  a  little  chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt.  It  is  a  black 
vegetable  substance,  in  part  charged  with  the  astringent  salts  of 
iron  and  alumina.  We  are  induced  to  speak  of  this  product  be- 
cause we  have  seen  it  from  three  different  parts  of  the  eastern 
counties,  in  Weldon,  near  Tarboro'  and  at  Mosely  Hall,  in  Lenoir 
county.  The  specimens  have  the  same  characteristics,  tiiough  that 
from  near  Weldon  was  obtained  from  a  depth  of  7(>  feet.  We 
communicated  with  those  interested  at  Weldon  and  Tarboro',  and 
have  not  preserved  a  statement  of  results.  The  specimens  from  a 
swamp  at  Mosely  Hall  will  require  a  brief  notice  ;  though  they 
deserve  a  full  analysis,  yet  time  will  not  permit  us  now  to  enter 
into  details. 


NORTH-OAHOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  85 

The  substances,  which  are  really  swamp  products,  are  black,  with 
an  astringent  ferruginous  taste.  If  applied  to  crops,  or  if  seed  are 
planted  in  it,  they  are  of  course  destroyed. 

The  black  astringent  substance  contains,  in  100  parts  : 

Water  and  vegetable  matter, 11.70 

Silex  or  sand,    82.30 

Protoxide  of  iron, 1.52 

Alumina, 1.82 

Carb.  lime, 0.80 

Sulphuric  acid,    1.61 

99.45 

The  surface  of  this  vegetable  matter  is  crusted  in  dry  weather 
with  this  astringent  salt.  If  this  substance  were  in  great  abundance 
it  would  be  an  excellent  material  for  composts,  notwithstanding  it 
is  now  poisonous  in  composition.  Mixing  lime  or  marl  with  it  will 
decompose  the  present  salt  and  form  gypsum.  This  substance  too, 
is  adapted  to  use  in  stables,  or  any  place  where  aiiimonia  is  gen- 
erated, and  escapes  into  the  air.  Sulphate  of  ammonia  will  be 
formed,  or  even  the  vegetable  matter  itself  as  it  is  absorbative,  will 
attract  and  retain  ammonia,  but  indeed  as  it  is  with  this  salt,  it  is 
an  admirable  material  to  spread  over  the  refuse  of  stables  and  yards 
where  noxious  odors  escape  and  which  are  always  we  believe  com- 
pounds, containing  ammonia  or  sulphur  or  both. 

From  this  swamp  deposit  we  have  obtained  phosphate  of  iron, 
a  product  which  we  suppose  may  have  been  formed  from  decom- 
posed animal  matter ;  it  is  rare  one  and  may  be  distinguished 
from  other  minerals  by  its  beautiful  blue  color. 

Another  product  of  this  swamp  we  are  inclined  to  regard  as  a 
compound  of  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  etc.,  but  we  are  still  in  doubt 
respecting  its  true  character.  It  is  white,  inclined  to  chrystallize 
in  radiating  forms,  and  is  sometimes  a  white,  soft  substance,  and 
in  others  quite  a  hard  concretion,  assuming  a  cylindrical  form. 
It  is  intermixed  with  grains  of  quartz,  which  arc  foreign  particles. 
It  gave,  on  analysis : 

Water,  , 4.2 

Organic  matter,    4.0 

Silex,  or  insoluble  matter, , $9.^ 


86  NOETH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKVET. 

A  substance  resembling  alumina,   28.0 

Carbonate  of  lime,    4.82 

Magnesia,    • 0.10 

99.92 

The  white  substance  resembling  alnmina,  we  suppose  may  be  a 
compound  with  phosphoric  acid,  but  we  have  not  the  proper  tests 
to  determine  full3'  its  composition ;  that  it  is  not  ahimina,  is  proved 
by  tlie  fact,  that  though  a  part  of  it  dissolves  in  water,  yet  the  pre- 
cipitate from  the  potash  solution  is  fused  at  once  in  the  flame  of 
the  blow  pipe.  If  a  phosphate  exists  in  quantity,  it  is  a  valuable 
substance ;  if  not  in  quantity,  it  is  a  very  interesting  one  for  the 
mineralogist.  A  test  for  alumina  is  the  production  of  a  blue  bead 
with  nitrate  of  cobalt  in  the  flame  of  the  blow  pipe.  There  is  a 
tino-e  of  blue,  when  thus  treated,  but  the  blueness  is  not  strictly 
that  which  is  common  to  alumina.  These  several  products  were 
received  from  Mr.  Parrott  Mewborn,  of  Lenoir  county,  who  ob- 
tained them  in  draining  a  swamp.  The  foregoing  products  are  the 
3iiost  important,  but  another  which  is  excessively  sandy  and  brown- 
ish black,  we  have  analyzed.     It  contains : 

Silex, , 91.0 

Water, , 2.1     . 

Organic  matter, 4.5 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,    2.75 

Carbonate  of  ILme,    . . . .  ^ . , ,.,,.... trace. 

100.3& 

Compounds  having  the  foregoing  composition  are  worthless,  and 
seem  to  have  acquired  the  vegetable  matter  as  a  debris,  and  not 
from  a  growth  of  vegetables  upon  the  spot. 


NOKTH-CAEOLIKA   GEOLOGICAL  STJKVEY.  8T 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Gall  berry  lands,  and  their  composition.     The  Savannah  lands  and  their  charac- 
teristics and  composition. 

§  56.  Tlie  gall  berry  lands,  as  tliey  are  called,  are  a  species  of 
swamp,  but  their  characteristics  cannot  be  subjected  to  the  exact 
rule  of  the  carpenter,  nor  the  legal  measure  of  the  grocer ;  they 
refuse  to  be  subjected  to  specific  technicalities,  though  they  have 
certain  common  characteristics.  All  lands  are  not  gall  herry,  be- 
cause the  gall  berry  lias  taken  possession  y  neither  are  gall  berry 
lands  all  composed  of  stifP  clay ;  some  are  sandy,  with  black  veg- 
etable matter  concealing  it,  while  uncultivated  or  unbroken.  Gall 
berry  lands  are  level  tracts,  composed  of  wet  and  sandy  argilla- 
ceous matters,  or  wet  sandy,  with  black  vegetable  mold  intermixed^ 
and  with  only  small  fractional  parts  of  the  money  elements  con- 
tained in  them  in  either  case. 

They  seem  to  have  been  formed  by  denudation,  by  the  action  of 
the  waves  of  the  sea,  by  which  the  best  part  of  a  soil,  tlie  top,  has 
been  carried  UM-ay,  as  a  stratum  of  stiff,  incorrigible,  sandy  and 
ferruginous  clay  beneath.  Over  certain  areas  subsequent  to  de- 
nudation, sand  has  accumulated  along  with  a  coarse  vegetable 
growth,  as  water  grasses  and  the  like ;  in  fact,  a  formation  went  on 
accumulating  like  the  best  swamp  lands,  but  the  material  was  a 
quartz  sand,  containing  only  traces  of  the  nutritive  elements.  In 
the  other  case,  a  formation,  though  slowly  building  up  now,  began 
with  the  process  of  filling  up  very  recently,  and  the  bottom  clays 
exposed  by  denudation  ;  still,  from  the  top  or  surface  the  dwarfed 
vegetation  springs  from  this  incorrigible  sandy  clay,  which  is- 
poorly  mixed,  coarse  and  closely  compacted,  so  as  to  hold  water 
about  as  well  as  a  wash  bowl.  By  evapora^tion  in  summer,  and  a 
slow  leakage,  these  lands  get  dry  by  the  middle  of  July  or  the  first 
of  August,  and  then  they  may  be  traversed,  but  they  are  liable  to 
become  wet  by  heavy  showers,  when  by  the  same  processes  they 
again  may  become  dry.  In  this  condition  of  the  soil  and  surface 
the  inducements  are  not  sufficiently  weightly  to  tempt  the  owner 
to  drain  them,  for  the  purpose  of  testing  their  qualities  for  crops 
of  the  cereals,  or  the  less  expensive  products,  the  root  crops,  to- 


88  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

•which  they  are  not  really  adapted.  Like  other  species  of  land,  we 
find  them  variable  in  composition,  but  uniformly  with  a  level 
surface,  and  so  close  that  water  stands  upon  them  until  it  evapo- 
rates. 

Their  relative  position  is  westward  of  the  kinds  of  swamp  which 
have  been  described  ;  though  lands  answering  to  the  gall  berry 
occur  in  patches  in  all  parts  of  the  eastern  counties  with  variable 
aspects,  but  always  wet,  level  and  with  a  dwarfed  vegetation. 

Their  chemical  constitution  gives  two  extremes;  the  black, 
sand}^  vegetable  mold,  and  the  stiff,  sandy,  argillaceous  bottoms. 
The  former  is  often  mistaken  for  good  swamp  soil ;  the  latter, 
never.  The  vegetation  is  much  the  same  in  both ;  coarse  water 
plants,  a  few  reeds  in  favored  places,  particularly  on  the  banks  of 
streams,  small,  short  and  long  leaved  pines;  but  the  whole  aspect 
of  the  vegetation  is  that  which  arises  from  a  short  allowance  of 
food,  and  exposure  to  cold  bottoms  beneath,  and  a  chilly  atmos- 
phere above. 

The  silex  in  all  the  kinds  of  gall  berry  lands  is  large,  the  soluble 
alumina  and  iron,  small — and  the  other  elements  in  small  fraction- 
al quantities. 

Thus  in  a  specimen  from  Sampson  county,  we  found  : 

Water, 3.09 

Silex,   ■ 88.40 

Organic  matter,    4.20 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina, 2.92 

Carbonate  of  lime,   02 

Magnesia, 01 

Potash  and  soda, trace. 

Phosphoric  acid  not  perceptible, 00 

But  medium  results  are  obtained  by  cultivation  when  these 
lands  are  well  drained ;  but,  as  it  costs  as  much  for  draining  the 
lands  as  better  ones,  it  is  not  often  done.  The  specimen  had  be- 
come dry  by  e'xposure  to  the  atmosphere. 

A  mechanical  separation  gave : 

€oarae  sand,  38. 

"Fine  soil, , 50.10 

Organic  matter,  4.20 


NOBTH-pA?.QLnyL   GEOLOGICAL   SFBYEY.  89 

§  57.  TTie  Savannah  lands^  diflfer  from  the  preceding  in  many 
important  particulars.  They  are  to  the  eye,  dead  level  tracts, 
open  to  the  snn  and  bordered  by  clumps  of  trees  irregularly  plant- 
ed so  as  to  have  open  spaces  either  leading  to  similar  tracts  or  in- 
to the  depths  of  a  forest.  They  are  now  usually  covered  vrith 
broom  grass,  and  appear  rather  barren  m  winter,  but  in  the  spring 
if  the  dead  grass  is  burned,  they  become  green  and  pleasant.  "We 
have  no  authentic  history  or  tradition  which  can  be  believed  in  all 
respects,  in  regard  to  their  origin.  But  they  really  are  miniature 
representations  of  western  prairies,  and  probably  originated  by  the 
action  of  similar  causes. 

When  a  certain  kind  of  soil  has  been  forest  planted,  it  con- 
tinues in  forest  for  centuries,  unless  some  cause  destroys  the  root 
and  branch,  as  fire  or  water  ;  and  when  destroyed  and  opened  to 
the  sun  a  thick  coating  of  grass  covers  the  ground  so  perfectly,  that 
the  seeds  of  forest  trees  are  deprived  of  the  necessary  stimulants  to 
germination,  or  if  they  germinate  a  repetition  of  destructive  agenta 
again  occurs,  till  all  seeds  at  or  near  the  surface  have  germinated 
and  have  been  destroyed.  Grass  ultimately  gets  full  possession ; 
and  though  in  the  general  it  appears  only  as  grass,  yet  if  watched 
carefully,  it  will  be  found  that  the  grasses  have  been  changing,  or 
a  natural  rotation  has  taken  place;  the  rule  ©"f  exchange  being  a 
succession  of  grasses  from  the  better  to  the  worse,  by  which  we 
have  ultimately  in  this  climate  broom  grass,  an  unmistakeable  in- 
dex of  an  exhausted  soil.  This  view,  however,  is  sustained  only 
when  the  products  of  vegetation  are  taken  away.  Combustion  of 
the  surface  materials,  followed  by  winds  which  transport  the  light 
ash  far  from  the  field  upon  which  the  plant  grew  which  produced 
it,  is  an  exhausting  process.  Forest  fields  when  once  exposed  to 
the  sun  by  the  destruction  of  their  pines,  oaks  and  hickories,  are 
directly  in  the  road  to  a  prairie,  or  savannah  formation ;  and  when 
the  latter  is  formed,  it  becomes  as  permanent  aa  a  forest.  As  it  re- 
gards their  origin,  we  incline  to  the  theory,  that  fire  has  been  the 
direct  instr«ment&  concerned,  and  is  still  more  or  less  active,  ib 
preserving  these  tracts  in  a  stationary  condition.  The  water  theo- 
ry, is  less  intelligible  than  the  fire  theory  ;  the  latter  explains  all 
the  phenomona  as  we  think  better  than  the  former. 

The  soil  of  the  savannahs  is  fine,  yellowish  and  compact,  not  un- 
like a  brick  clay,  and  so  far  as  we  have  observed,  contains  by  fap 
6 


'%'0  i;f6BTb:-t!AK0LlNA  d^lS&^Al.   SURVEY. 

less  coarse  sand.  It  is  a  liomogeneons  soil,  in  which  respect,  it  dif- 
fers from  the  gall  berrj,  and  it  being  fine,  compact,  deep,  and  still 
wet,  though  not  a  swamp  at  all,  it  still  holds  always  too  much  wa- 
ter for  the  cultivation  of  the  cereals.  The  land  is  cold ;  a  term  un- 
doubtedly applicable  to  this  class,  in  which  respect,  it  differs  from 
the  prairies  of  the  west.  It  ditfers  also  from  the  swamp  soils  in  the 
absence  of  vegetable  matter,  and  from  the  uplands  by  compactness 
and  firmness  of  material,  and  hence  too  the  explanation  of  the 
fact,  too  cold  and  moist,  for  the  cultivation  of  the  cereals  or  even 
of  root  crops. 

The  specimen  of  soil  which  has  been  examined  was  taken  from  a 
savannah  in  Craven  county,  which  is  being  put  into  a  state  for 
cultivation,  and  which  is  owned  by  Mr.  Wood.  The  Atlantic  rail- 
road passes  through  it.  These  lands  in  Craven  county,  though  not 
so  extensive  as  those  of  New  Hanover,  still  seem  to  possess  the 
same  characterics.  We  cannot  affirm  that  there  are  not  many  va- 
rieties of  savannah  lands,  still,  there  are  good  grounds  for  believing 
that  they  possess  a  greater  uniformity  of  composition  than  the 
swamp  or  gall  beriy  l^nds. 

The  savannah  soil  of  Craven,  on  b-eing  submitted  to  analysis, 
gave  4 

Water, 4.00 

Humic  acid  or  soluble  organic  matter, ,.,     2.00 

Insoluble,    1.70 

'  Phosphoric  acid,  undetermined, 

Silex, 80.590 

Silicic  acid,   100 

Alumina, T.OOO 

Peroxide  of  iron,    3.400 

Carbonate  of  lime,   600 

Magnesia,    176 

Potash, 098 

Chlorine,  a  large,   ^ trace. 

Sulphuric  acid, , trace. 

99.664 
Ammonia, .0387  percent 

The  specimen  was  dried  in  the  air  previous  to  analysis,  it  there- 
fore does  not  represent  the  quantity  of  water  held  by  the  soil  in 
its  ordinary  condition. 


NOBTH-CAROLINA  (J?pLiQ|^^  ^TDTI^^T-.  91 

The  chemical  constitntton  of  the  savannah  lands  appear  to  be 
well  composed  for  durable  cultivation.  They  will  require  deep 
draining  and  the  time  required  for  the  escape  of  water  will  un- 
doubtedly be  twice  as  long  as  that  necessary  to  drain  ordinary  up- 
land soil,  in  consequence  of  the  fine  state  of  division  in  which  the 
materials  exist,  and  their  natural  affinity  for  water.  When  drained 
and  dried,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  they  will  become  good 
wheat  or  cotton  lands. 


92  NORTH-CAKOLINA   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


APPENDIX, 


Containing  brief  descriptions  of  the  mineral  springs  and  well  waters  which  occur 
in  and  about  Raleigh. 

§  58.  At  numerous  places  in  Wake  and  the  adjacent  counties 
several  springs  have  been  discovered  which  are  entitled  to  the  appel- 
lation oi  mineral  boaters.  Frequent  inquiries  have  been  made  by 
letter  relative  to  them,  and  in  several  instances  these  waters  have 
been  sent  to  me  for  analysis.  These  requests  have  been  complied 
with  so  far  as  it  seemed  to  be  necessary.  In  most  cases,  however, 
when  the  general  character  of  the  water  was  known  by  taste,  or  by 
its  behavior  on  standing  twenty-four  hours,  I  have  merely  made  a 
qualiatative  examination.  The  water  in  this  neighborhood, 
or  in  the  town  of  Raleigh,  are  all  chalybeates,  and  though  they  ap- 
pear to  be  weak,  or  contain  a  small  amount  only  of  mineral  mat- 
ter, yet  it  is  sufficient  for  medical  purposes  ;  for  if  the  quantity  was 
larger,  it  would  be  more  disagreeable  to  the  palate,  less  would  be 
drank,  and  it  would  both  affect  the  head  and  produce  a  feeling  of 
tightness  across  the  chest.  The  quantity  of  mineral  matter  is  there- 
fore well  adapted  for  use  in  all  eases  where  chalybeates  are  useful. 
An  essential  condition  for  the  salutary  injiuence  of  chalybeates  is, 
their  solution  in  a  large  amount  of  liquid  matter.  It  insures  their 
absorption  into  the  system,  and  thereby  favors  their  specific  in- 
fluences, much  more  than  if  they  were  in  a  concentrated  state. 

The  well  waters  of  Paleigh,  which  are  used  for  drinking  and 
cooking  rank  with  as  much  propriety  in  the  class  inineral  waters^ 
as  the  springs  referred  to.  They  differ,  however,  from  them  in  the 
absence  of  iron,  or  if  it  exists,  it  is  but  a  traee,  and  in  the  presence 
of  chlorides,  which  exist  only  in  traces  in  the  mineral  spring  wa- 
ters. How  muich  influence  impure  well  waters  have  upon  the 
health  of  a  community  is  not  well  determined.  But  it  is  well 
known  that  to  strangers  the  common  waters  of  a  locality  are  fre- 
quently highl}'^  injurious,  and  it  is  probably  true  that  the  purer  the 
water  for  common  use,  especially  for  drinking  the  better  it  is,  and 
there  is  very  little  doubt  that  the  best  water  which  can  be  procured 
for  family  use,  is  ram  water^  collected  and  preserved  in  filtering 


KORTH-CAEOLINA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  93 

cisterns.  In  summer  it  would  be  warm,  but  cooled  with  ice  it  be- 
comes a  luxury. 

There  is  a  great  uniformity  in  the  composition  of  the  spring 
waters  of  this  description ;  the  constant  differences  being  a  varia- 
tion in  the  amount  of  solid  matter  dissolved  in  the  water.  They 
belong  to  the  class  known  as  chalybeate  waters,  which  contain  iron 
as  the  most  active  and  important  element.  Such  springs  are 
readily  recognized  by  the  yellow  or  ochreous  deposit  along  the 
line  of  flow. 

They  are  limpid  or  perfectly  transparent  when  they  first  issue 
from  the  ground  and  when  first  bottled,  but  on  standing  24  hours, 
a  yellowish  sediment  falls  down  consisting  of  iron,  lime  and  mag- 
nesia. This  takes  place  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  carbonic  acid, 
the  matter  in  solution  being  retained  by  an  extra  atom  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  hence  while  the  salts  are  held  in  solution  they  are  bi-car- 
bonates.  When  the  water  is  exposed  to  the  air  the  feeble  affinity 
of  tliis  extra  atom  of  carbonic  acid  is  such  that  it  soon  escapes  and 
the  remaining  compound  in  the  water  is  no  longer  soluble,  and 
hence,  is  deposited  in  a  powder.  A  tumbler  of  those  waters  stand- 
ing in  the  open  air  sliows  the  escape  of  a  gas  which  is  carbonic  acid. 
When  the  fresh  water  is  shaken  with  a  solution  of  red  cabbage 
changed  to  a  tinge  of  green  by  ammonia  or  an  alkali,  it  becomes 
purplish  again  by  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  escaping. 

It  is  claimed  that  some  of  the  springs  contain  sulphur ;  those 
which  have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  basic  acetate  of  lead, 
have  scarcely  a  perceptible  effect  upon  this  delicate  test.  Silver 
vessels  which  have  been  used  many  times  become  slightly  tarnished 
in  certain  spots.  Hence,  it  is  possible,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  es- 
capes in  exceedingly  minute  quantities. 

The  springs  usually  fiow  out  of  banks  of  gravel  and  sand  iu 
place,  and  which  was  derived  from  granite  or  gneiss.  These  banks 
are  more  or  less  ferruginous,  but  in  the  best  waters  they  probably 
flow  from  the  granite,  and  thence  percolate  through  the  soil. 

Composition  of  some  of  the  waters  of  these  springs: 

§  59.  Garter  spring,  at  the  garden,  one  mile  and  a  half  from  town. 
The  whole  amount  of  solid  matter  held  in  solution  in  a  gallon  of 
water  is  16.72  grains.  It  consists  of  chloride  of  lime,  organic 
matter,  bi-carbonate  of  iron,  lime  and  magnesia.  In  all  cases,  the 
organic  matter  is  in  the  condition  of  humic,  crenic  and  apocrenic 


&4  NOKTH-CAEOLINA   GEOLOGICAL   SUKYET^ 

acidsj.  which  are  also  in  combination  with  the  mineral  matter.  It 
contains  also  silicic  acid. 

The  IngUiiide  spring,  two  miles  east  of  Raleigh^  is  in  a  fine 
grove,  and  fine  drives  might  be  cut  ont  by  opening  roads,  or  tine 
walks,  as  thej  would  be  shaded  by  avenues  of  trees. 

This  spring  contains  solid  matter,  about  15  grains  to  the  gallon, 
consisting  of  organic  matter,  iron,  lime  and  magnesia.  The  chlo- 
ride of  lime  was  not  tested  for,,  but  as  it  is  usually  present,  so 
probabl}'^  it  is  in  this  water.  Its  iise  has  had  a  beneficial  effect 
upon  invalids  in  several  instances. 

The  analysis  of  the  spring  upon  Mr.  Boylan^s  land,  was  not  pre- 
served ;  it  scarcely  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  the  amount  of  solid 
matter,  to  the  gallon.  The  watei'  is  pleasant  to  drink,  and  is  pecu- 
liar in  its  taste. 

The  water  of  a  spring  in  Franklin  county  resena^bles  also  the  fore- 
going.    One  pint  of  this  water  contains  :. 

Iron,  in  combination  with  carbonic  and  organic  acids,     .2X 

Lime, 34 

Magnesia, _.,     .10 

Organic  matter  as  a  whole, 2. IS 

2.84 

To  the  gallon  22. Y7  grs. 

The  Dadd  spring  has  a  temperature  of  60°,  air  being  78.  The 
solid  matter  in  a  gallon  amounts  to  16  grs.     In  a  pint  it  contains : 

Organic  matter,    _ »..     .90 

Iron  in  combination  with  organic  matter,    40 

Garb,  of  Mme, 24 

Carb.  of  raagnesia,    10 

Besides  the  foregoing,  we  obtained  both  the  chlorides  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  the  latter  in  a  large  trace.  The  Dodd  spring  differs 
from  the  Franklin  county  spring  in  containing  less  organic  matter, 
and  hence,  it  is  that  the  iron  in  it,  is  more  distinct  to  the  taste. 

The  yellow  powder  deposited  from-  mineral  springs  has  a  com- 
plex composition.  It  consists  of  humic  acid,  crenic  and  apo- 
crenic  acids  in  conabination  with  the  iron,  a  portion  of  the  carbonic 


NOKTH-CAKOLmA.  GE0LX5GICAL   SURVEY.  95 

acid  having  escaped.  The  two  last  acids  are  detected  by  the  action 
of  acetate  of  copper  upon  the  alkaline  solution  of  this  ferruginous 
deposit.  There  is  no  dou%t,  also,  that  phosphoric  acid  is  present 
in  the  compound. 

§  60.  The  wells  of  Fayette  ville  street  deserve  a  place  among  mineral 
waters.  They  differ  from  the  springs  simply,  in  the  absence  of  iron. 
The  well  at  the  corner  of  Fayette  ville  street  leading  to  the  depot, 
contains  23.92  grains  of  solid  matter  to  the  gallon,  containing  alu- 
mina, sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids,  lime,  magnesia  and  organic 
matter,  both  vegetable  and  animal.  Mr.  Askew's  well  contains  to 
the  gallon,  21.36  grains;  organic  matter  11.68;  saline  matter 
9.68.  The  market  well  contains  iS. SO  grs.  to  the  gallon  ;  organic 
matter  7.20;  sahne  matter  13.20. 

The  Doctor's  well  contains  21.44:  grains  of  solid  matter  to  the 
gallon,  saline  matter  8.16.  organic  matter  1.3,28. 

To  repeat  once  more,  the  saline  matter  in  the  foregoing  wells 
consists  of,  1,  chlorides,  or  we  may  call  them  muriates,  muriates  of 
lime  and  magnesia;;  2,  sulphates,  as  sulphate  of  lime,  together  with 
organic  matter.  The  saline  matter  is  white  and  free  from  iron,  or 
merely  traces  of  iron.  The  brown  or  gray  crust  upon  the  tea 
kettles  consists  of  the  sulphates  and  carbonates  of  lime ;  the  latter 
is  formed  probably  from  the  orgaiiic  salts. 

The  salutary  eft'ects  of  the  spring  water,  which  we  have  wit- 
nessed in  several  instances,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  iron,  which 
is  perfectly  dissolved  in  the  water  when  it  issues  from  the  fountain^ 
in  which  condition  it  is  readily  absorbed  into  the  system.  The 
other  substances,  however,  are  regarded  as  aiding  in  the  general 
effects. 


a(5-'» 


p-^' 


